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Updated December 2, 2020
Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
(JROTC)
Overview and Mission
instructor. By law (10 U.S.C. §2031), military departments
The Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC) is a
may subsidize instructor positions by reimbursing the host
voluntary high school program of instruction administrated
institution for a portion of the salary. DOD financial
by the Department of Defense (DOD) through the military
regulations refer to the salary that a school must pay the
departments. The purpose of JROTC, according to 10
instructor as the Minimum Instructor Pay (MIP). The MIP
U.S.C. §2031, is “to instill in students in United States
is the difference between (1) the active duty pay and
secondary educational institutions the values of citizenship,
allowances the instructor would receive if recalled to active
service to the United States, and personal responsibility and
duty and (2) the instructor’s retired pay entitlement. For
a sense of accomplishment.” JROTC was established as an
example, if annual military retired pay is $24,000 and total
Army program by the National Defense Act of 1916 (P.L.
active duty pay and allowances is $52,000 the institution
64-85) and in 1964 expanded to the Navy and Air Force.
would pay the instructor the difference of $28,000. The
Congress authorized Coast Guard JROTC units at two
military may reimburse the institution $14,000 (one-half of
schools: the Maritime and Science Technology Academy in
$28,000). Additional sample salary calculations can be
Miami, FL, in 1989 (P.L. 101-225), and Camden County
found in DOD Instruction 1205.13.
High School, NC, in 2005 (P.L. 109-241).
Curriculum
In FY2020, there were more than 3,400 JROTC units
JROTC courses are taught over a three- or four-year period
operating in every state and in DOD schools overseas (see
with academic coursework on topics such as leadership and
Table 1). The FY2020 NDAA (P.L. 116-92) allows for 8th
ethics, civics, history, and health and wellness. The FY2020
grade students to participate in JROTC if physically co-
NDAA authorizes instruction in science, technology,
located with 9-12th grade students. The law also requires
engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. JROTC also
host schools to allow homeschooled students to participate
includes service-specific courses such as Aerospace Science
in JROTC.
or Seamanship and Navigation. In addition, units offer
extracurricular activities such as color guard/drill team,
Table 1. Estimated Size of JROTC Program, FY2020
marksmanship, and field trips to military installations.
Number of
Number of
Service
Establishing a JROTC Program
units
students
Educational institutions interested in hosting a unit must
Army
1,709
305,000
apply to the respective military department. By law,
participating host schools are required to maintain
Navy
583
88,000
participation levels of 10% of the student body, or 100
Marine Corps
255
34,090
students, whichever is less. The military departments
establish criteria for unit placement. For example, the Army
Air Force
885
125,900
maintains an Order of Merit List, based on a point system
Total
3,432
552,990
that awards credit to institutions for categories such as Title
I status under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
Source: FY2021 budget justification documents (J-books) for the
(P.L. 89-10, as amended), local indicators of need (e.g.,
Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps. Figures do not include
high unemployment or illiteracy), student enrollment,
National Defense Cadet Corps (NNDCC) units.
school financial solvency, and fair and equitable
JROTC Instructors
distribution of JROTC programs among states.
Most JROTC instructors are retired or reserve officers and
Schools may also apply to host or convert an existing
enlisted noncommissioned officers (NCOs) who serve as
JROTC unit to a National Defense Cadet Corps (NDCC)
employees of the school district. Service-level policies
per 10 U.S.C. §2035. NDCC statutory and regulatory
require JROTC schools to have a minimum of one officer
requirements are similar to host a JROTC unit. However,
(Senior Military Instructor) and one NCO (Junior Military
instructor salaries and other costs for NDCCs are the
Instructor) on staff. Requirements to qualify as a JROTC
responsibility of the host institution and not subsidized by
instructor (e.g., education, certification) are specified in law
the government.
(10 U.S.C. §2033). Instructors are also required to abide by
standards set by their parent service, as well as the policies
Federal Funding
set by their host institution.
Beyond instructor salaries mentioned earlier, the military
departments also fund uniforms, cadet travel, training aids,
Retired servicemembers who are eligible for retired pay
text books, educational materials, and other unit operating
may continue to receive such pay while employed as an
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link to page 2 Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC)
expenses. Host institutions provide classroom space,
to recruit from a diverse background to sustain the all-
facilities, and administrative support for the unit. Congress
volunteer force.”
annually appropriates JROTC funds as part of DOD’s
A 2016 report from the RAND Corporation found that
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) and Military Personnel
JROTC is generally underrepresented in rural and remote
(MILPERS) budget. JROTC funding for all of the Services
areas. In addition, JROTC units in public schools are not
in FY2020 was approximately $389 million, with the Army
evenly distributed geographically and tend to be
program accounting for more than half of the total (see
overrepresented in the South Atlantic states relative to the
Table 2).
national average. Public high schools with larger-than-
Table 2. DOD Funding for JROTC, FY2020
average minority populations and in schools serving
economically disadvantaged populations are also
(Enacted base funding, in thousands of dol ars)
overrepresented as JROTC host schools.
Service
O&M
MILPERS
Total
Higher representation in economically disadvantaged and
Army
$176,691
$29,746
$206,437
larger/more urban schools has largely been a function of
Navy
$55,164
$15,259
$70,423
service-level policy decisions that award preference for
Title I schools and other structural program requirements
Marine
$25,183
$3,936
$29,119
(e.g., minimum student participation, availability of
Corps
instructors). While advocates for JROTC point to positive
Air Force
$65,092
$18,345
$83,437
outcomes for high-risk youth, some critics of JROTC have
argued that it unfairly targets low-income and minority
Total
$322,130
$67,286
$389,416
communities for military recruiting.
Source: FY2021 budget justification documents (J-books) for the
Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps.
How does participation affect recruiting?
Participation in JROTC does not incur any military
Considerations for Congress
obligation and military recruitment is not a stated objective
In Congress’s role in funding and overseeing JROTC, there
in statute or policy. Nevertheless, the military services
are several potential areas for consideration.
intend to provide favorable exposure to military careers and
the program has potential to increase the propensity for
What are some of the program benefits?
military service. Some researchers have found a positive
While research on comparable student populations has been
correlation between JROTC and enlistment while others
limited, several studies have found positive correlations
have found that the impact of JROTC participation on
between JROTC participation and student outcomes,
military enlistment is negligible when accounting for self-
including school attendance and graduation rates, improved
selection into JROTC.
test performance, higher self-esteem for female students,
and lower rates of disciplinary action.
JROTC participants who pursue enlistment or appointment
as an officer may receive some benefits at the time of entry
JROTC funding may also benefit schools through support
into the service. For example, per DOD policy (DODI
for teaching and extracurricular activities. However, some
1205.13), a student successfully completing at least two
critics have questioned whether cost-sharing requirements
academic years of the JROTC program is entitled to
create a burden for poorer school districts.
advanced promotion to the grade of no less than E-2 upon
initial enlistment in an Active or Reserve component. The
How many units should DOD support?
military departments may award the grade of E-3 for
The number of JROTC units that the services can support
successful completion of three academic years. In addition,
depends on annual budget levels and funding priorities.
the secretaries of the military departments may nominate up
Statutory limits on the number of JROTC programs were
to 20 honor graduates from JROTC units designated by the
gradually increased over time and, in 2001, Congress
secretaries as honor schools for appointment to one of the
repealed all limits (P.L. 107-107 §537). Subsequent
three military service academies (10 U.S.C. §8454 for
legislation in 2006 (P.L. 109-364 §541) and 2008 (P.L.
Naval Academy, §7442 for U.S. Military Academy, and
110-181 §548) directed the secretaries of the military
§9442 for Air Force Academy).
departments to expand the program to additional schools
with a target of 3,700 units by September 30, 2020.
Other considerations
Some additional questions that Congress may consider
Is the distribution of units equitable?
when thinking about future investments in JROTC
A continued concern for Congress has been the equitable
programs include:
distribution of JROTC units across various demographic,
socioeconomic, and geographic indicators. Language in the
To what extent does JROTC curriculum help meet
Senate report to accompany the FY2015 DOD
program and national goals? Should additional courses
Appropriations Bill (S.Rept. 113-211) expressed concern
be required or incentivized?
about JROTC participation at the individual and school
Should the program be structured or funded differently
levels, and asked for the department to report on “any plans
to encourage participation or remove entry barriers for
to ensure adequate representation of all regions in the
certain types of schools or sub-populations?
United States to ensure the capabilities of the Armed Forces
Kristy N. Kamarck, Specialist in Military Manpower
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Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC)
IF11313
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