Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy
Updated October 14, 2020
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
RS21513

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

Summary
Kuwait has been pivotal to the decades-long U.S. effort to secure the Persian Gulf region because
of its consistent cooperation with U.S. military operations in the region and its key location in the
northern Gulf. Kuwait and the United States have a formal Defense Cooperation Agreement
(DCA), under which the United States deploys over 13,000 military personnel in country and
prepositions substantial quantities of military equipment.
Kuwait is a partner not only of the United States but also of the other hereditary monarchies of
the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC: Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Qatar,
Bahrain, and Oman). Kuwaiti forces are part of the Saudi-led coalition that is trying to defeat the
Iran-backed “Houthi” rebel movement in Yemen, while at the same time mediating a possible
resolution to that and other regional conflicts. Kuwait is attempting to heal the intra-GCC rift that
erupted in June 2017 when Saudi Arabia and the UAE moved to isolate Qatar. Kuwait has
refrained from intervening in Syria’s civil war, instead hosting several donor conferences for
victims of the Syrian civil conflict. Kuwait also has provided funds for Iraq’s recovery from the
Islamic State challenge and to ameliorate the effects of regional conflict on Jordan’s economy.
Kuwait has not followed some of the other GCC states in building ties to the government of
Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in Israel.
Kuwait generally supports U.S. efforts to counter Iran and has periodically arrested Kuwaiti Shias
that the government says are spying for Iran, but it also engages Iran at high levels and has not
advocated U.S. or GCC confrontation of Iran. Kuwait has consistently engaged the post-Saddam
governments in Baghdad, in part to prevent tensions with the large neighbor and prevent any
repeat of the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. U.S. government reports have praised steps by
Kuwait to counter the financing of terrorism, but reports persist that wealthy Kuwaitis are still
able to donate to regional Islamist extremists.
Experts have long cited Kuwait’s political system as a potential regional model for its successful
incorporation of secular and Islamist political factions, both Shia and Sunni. However, since the
2011 Arab Spring uprisings, Kuwait has followed other GCC states in incarcerating and revoking
the citizenship of social media and other critics. Kuwait’s fundamental political stability has not
been in question, but long-standing parliamentary opposition to the ruling Sabah family’s
political dominance has in recent years been joined by public pressure for political and economic
reform. Kuwait has entered a new period of some uncertainty following the September 29, 2020
death of Amir Sabah Al Ahmad Al Jabir Al Sabah, and his succession by Crown Prince Nawwaf
al-Ahmad al-Jabir Al Sabah. The new Amir appointed another brother of the late Amir, Mishal al-
Ahmad al-Jabir Al Sabah as the new Crown Prince. Both new leaders are in their 80s, and the
transition occurs as the next National Assembly elections approach, tentatively slated for
November 28.
Years of political paralysis have arguably contributed to economic stagnation relative to Kuwait’s
more economically vibrant Gulf neighbors such as Qatar and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
Like the other GCC states, Kuwait has struggled with reduced income from oil exports since
2014, and these levels have fallen further in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. As of October
14, 2020, the country has reported 113,000 COVID-19 infections and about 675 deaths. Kuwait
receives negligible amounts of U.S. foreign assistance, and has offset some of the costs of U.S.
operations in the region since Iraq’s 1990 invasion of Kuwait.
Congressional Research Service

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

History and Governance
Kuwait’s optimism after the 2003 fall of its nemesis, Saddam Hussein, soured after the January
15, 2006, death of Amir (ruler) Jabir Ahmad al-Jabir Al Sabah. From then until 2013, Kuwait
underwent repeated political crises that produced economic stagnation.
The origin of modern Kuwait dates to the early 18th century, when the Banū Utūb families of the
ʿAnizah tribe in the interior of the Arabian Peninsula, migrated to the area that is now Kuwait. In
1756, the settlers appointed the Ṣabāḥ family to exercise political authority. Toward the end of the
19th century, Kuwaiti leaders aligned with the Ottoman Empire but did not come under Ottoman
rule. The Al Sabah ruler known as Mubārak the Great (who came to power by assassinating his
brother) later built close ties to Britain to counter Ottoman threats. An 1899 treaty basically
granted Britain control of Kuwait’s foreign affairs. Following the outbreak of World War I (1914–
1918), Kuwait became a British protectorate. On June 19, 1961, Britain recognized Kuwait’s
independence.
Leadership Structure
Under Kuwait’s 1962 constitution, an Amir (Arabic word for prince, but in this context means
“ruler”) is the head of state and ruler of Kuwait. He is Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces,
appoints all judges, and can suspend the National Assembly. The Amir appoints a Prime Minister
as head of government, who in turn appoints a cabinet. The Prime Minister has always been a
member of the Sabah family, and until 2003 the Prime Minister and Crown Prince/heir apparent
posts were held by a single person. It is typical of Kuwaiti cabinets that most of the key ministries
(defense, foreign policy, and finance) are led by Sabah family members.
At the time of Amir Jabir’s death, his designated successor, Shaykh Sa’ad bin Abdullah Al Sabah,
was infirm. A brief succession dispute among rival branches of the ruling Al Sabah family was
resolved with then-Prime Minister Shaykh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jabir Al Sabah, the younger
brother of the late Amir, becoming Amir on January 29, 2006. Amir Sabah was over 90 years old
when he passed away on September 29, 2020 and was immediately succeeded by his half-brother,
Nawwaf al-Ahmad al-Jabir Al Sabah, who is about 84 years old. One week later, Nawwaf named
Mishal al-Ahmad al-Jabir Al Sabah, another brother of the late Amir, as Crown Prince, who is
about 81. Mishal’s appointment that was confirmed by a National Assembly vote, as required by
Kuwait’s constitution. Nawwaf is widely expected to continue the policies of Amir Sabah.
Table 1. Senior Leaders in Kuwait
Amir (Ruler)
Nawwaf al-Ahmad al-Jabir Al Sabah
Crown Prince
Mishal al-Ahmad al-Jabir Al Sabah
Prime Minister
Sabah al-Khalid al-Hamad Al Sabah
First Deputy Prime Minister and Defense Minister
Ahmad Mansour Al-Ahmad Al-Sabah
Foreign Minister
Dr. Ahmad Nasser al-Mohammed al-Ahmad al-Jabir Al-
Sabah
National Assembly Speaker
Marzuq al-Ghanim
Elected National Assembly
The National Assembly, established by Kuwait’s November 1962 constitution, is the longest-
serving all-elected body among the Gulf monarchies. Fifty seats are elected, and up to 15
Congressional Research Service

1

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

members of the cabinet serve in the Assembly ex-officio. The government has expanded the
electorate gradually: in the 1990s, the government extended the vote to sons of naturalized
Kuwaitis and Kuwaitis naturalized for at least 20 (as opposed to 30) years. Kuwaiti women
obtained suffrage rights when the National Assembly passed a government bill to that effect in
May 2005. In recent elections, about 400,000 Kuwaitis have been eligible to vote.
Kuwait’s National Assembly has more scope of authority than any legislative or consultative
body in the GCC states, in part because it drafts legislation as well as acting on government-
drafted legislation. The Assembly does not confirm cabinet nominees (individually or en bloc),
but it frequently questions ministers (“grilling”). It can, by simple majority, remove ministers in a
vote of “no confidence,” and can oust a prime minister by voting “inability to cooperate with the
government.” Kuwait’s leaders have, on nine occasions (1976-1981, 1986-1992, 2003, 2006,
2008, 2009, 2011, 2012, and 2016), conducted a constitutional dissolution of the Assembly,
mandating new elections within 60 days. Some oppositionists seek a constitutional monarchy in
which an elected Assembly majority would name a Prime Minister, who would form a cabinet.
Factions in and Outside the National Assembly
Political parties are not permitted, and factions compete in Assembly elections as “currents,”
“trends,” or “political societies.” These factions also organize at a parallel traditional Kuwaiti
forum called the diwaniyya—informal evening social gatherings, hosted by elites of all
ideologies. Factions in Kuwait generally group as follows:1
Government Supporters
 “Tribalists.” Draw support from generally less educated, tribal-oriented
constituents in towns and villages in the outer rings of Kuwait City. Sometimes
referred to as “service deputies”—primarily focused on steering government
largesse and patronage to their constituents.
 Shias. Most Shias in the Assembly are Islamists, organized in a bloc called the
National Islamic Alliance. These parliamentarians have tended to side with the
government.
 Women. The women elected to the National Assembly, to date, have all tended to
support the government.
Government Critics/Opponents
 “Liberals” and Youths. The leaders of this grouping are highly educated, secular
elites. Since 2008, Kuwaiti youth groups have organized to support Kuwait’s
liberal figures, using such names as the “Orange Movement” or “Fifth Fence.”
 Sunni Islamists. Kuwait’s Sunni Islamists generally criticize the royal family as
secular. The Sunni Islamists have tended to affiliate either with the Muslim
Brotherhood supporters (Islamic Constitutional Movement, ICM), or harder-line
“Salafists.” Neither has a record of violence. However, the government has
sought to disband the Brotherhood’s Kuwaiti charity arm, Islah.

1 The descriptions of Kuwait’s factions are widely discussed among experts, many of whom might differ somewhat in
their descriptions. This sketch of Kuwait’s factions is a product of multiple conversations between the author and
Kuwaiti and other observers of Kuwaiti politics.
Congressional Research Service

2

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

Political Uncertainty: Assembly Suspensions and Elections
Disputes between the Al Sabah and oppositionists in the Assembly have often manifested as
Assembly suspensions and elections, none of which has yet resolved differences over the power
balance between the executive and the Assembly. In three National Assembly elections during
2006-2009 (June 26, 2006; May 17, 2008; and May 16, 2009), divisions between the government
and powerful National Assembly deputies emerged over the role of the Assembly in overseeing
government decisions. During the period, the government accepted an Assembly demand to
reduce the number of electoral districts to five (from 25), and the first women were allowed to run
(2006) and won seats (2009).
The Arab uprisings that began in early 2011 expanded the divisions between the government and
the elites in the National Assembly to the broader citizenry. In January 2011, opposition deputies,
supported by youths, forced the Interior Minister to resign for failing to prevent the use of torture
in prisons. Following allegations that two Kuwaiti banks had deposited $92 million into the
accounts of several parliamentarians, on November 16, 2011, oppositionists in and outside the
Assembly stormed the Assembly building and demanded - and achieved - the Prime Minister’s
resignation.
The election since the 2011 Arab uprisings are discussed briefly below. The State Department has
consistently called Kuwait’s elections “generally free and fair.”
 February 2, 2012, Election. On December 6, 2011, Amir Sabah dissolved the
National Assembly and set new elections for February 2, 2012. Opposition
candidates advocating a fully elected government and legalization of political
parties won 32 of the 50 seats, but none of the 19 female candidates was elected.
A leading opposition figure, Ahmad al-Sadun, returned to the Speaker post he
held during 1985-1999, and four oppositionists were named to the cabinet.
 December 2012 Election Triggered by Court. On June 20, 2012, the
constitutional court voided the December 2011 Assembly suspension on technical
grounds and reinstated the May 2009 Assembly. The Amir set new elections for
December 1, 2012, and decreed that each voter would cast a ballot for one
candidate (per district), rather than four – a change that would complicate
opposition efforts to forge coalitions. A boycott by Sunni Islamist factions
produced a “pro-government” Assembly, including an unprecedented 17 Shias.
Three women were elected, as were some independent Sunni Islamists.
 Another Court-Triggered Election on July 27, 2013. On June 16, 2013, the
Constitutional Court upheld the Amir’s decree that each person would vote for
only one candidate per district (see above), but dissolved the Assembly for
improper technicalities in the Amir’s election decree. New elections were held on
July 27, 2013, and eight women ran. Several opposition groups boycotted again
and a generally pro-government Assembly was elected. One woman was elected.
 November 26, 2016 Election. Public demonstrations generally subsided after
2013 but, citing “circumstances in the region” (an apparent reference to the
region’s several conflicts) the Amir suspended the Assembly and set new
elections for November 26, 2016. Of the 454 candidates, 15 were women. The
main opposition political societies participated, and the vote produced an
Assembly split between pro-government and opposition deputies.
Congressional Research Service

3

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

Recent Election-Related Developments
Following Amir Sabah’s return to Kuwait on October 16, 2019, after medical treatment in the
United States, parliamentary questioning of alleged corruption led to challenges to two ministers,
including one of the women cabinet ministers, Minister of Public Works Jenan Bushehri, who
resigned before a likely vote of no confidence. On November 14, 2019, the government of Prime
Minister Jabir al-Mubarak Al Sabah, resigned, and the Amir named Shaykh Sabah al-Khalid Al
Sabah, who was serving as foreign minister, as the new Prime Minister. In concert with the
reshuffle, the Amir also dismissed his son from his senior posts for accusing a rival, the Interior
Minister, of allowing embezzlement of almost $800 million in public funds.2
The new Amir Nawwaf has kept the existing government in place, and the cabinet ended its
meetings on October 8, 2020 to prepare for the next National Assembly elections. The elections
are due to be held on November 28, 2020, but can be held under the constitution as late as
December 10. No firm date has been set. Kuwaiti tribes reportedly have begun meeting in
informal “primaries" to narrow their district nominees to a few tribe members and avoid splitting
the vote.
Table 2. Composition of the National Assembly
Feb.
2008
2012
Dec. 2012
July 2013
Ideology/Affiliation
Vote
2009 Vote
Vote
Vote
Vote
Nov. 2016 Vote
Sunni Islamist (opposition)
24
14
23
4
3
16
Muslim Brotherhood (ICM) and
(all Salafi, no
(roughly equal numbers of
Salafi
ICM)
ICM and Salafi)
Liberals and allies (opposition)
7
10
9
1
9
8
Shia (pro-government)
5
9
7
17
8
6
Sunni Independents (tribalists,
14
17
11
28
30
20
pro-business deputies, and
women). Pro-government
Women (pro-government)
0
4
0
3
1
1
included in categories above
Source: CRS, based on articles and analysis from various observers.
Note: Some members of the National Assembly might span several different categories, and several sources
often disagree on precise categorizations of the members of the Assembly.
Broader Human Rights Issues3
The State Department human rights report for 2019 identified the principal human rights issues in
Kuwait as: “reports of torture; arbitrary detention; political prisoners; arbitrary or unlawful
interference with privacy; restrictions on free expression, the press, and the internet, including
criminalization of libel, censorship, and internet site blocking; interference with the rights of
peaceful assembly and freedom of association; restrictions on freedom of movement; trafficking
in persons; criminalization of consensual adult male same-sex sexual conduct; and reports of
forced labor, principally among foreign workers.”

2 “Kuwait’s ruler fires son over feud with fellow minister.” Associated Press. November 18, 2019.
3 Much of this section, including all subsections, is from the State Department’s country report on human rights
practices for 2019. “Kuwait.”
Congressional Research Service

4

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

Two of the most prominent independent human rights organizations in Kuwait are the Kuwait
Society for Human Rights and the Kuwait Association for the Basic Evaluation of Human Rights,
both of which have been allowed access to Kuwait’s prisons. Another human rights organization
in the country is the Human Rights Diwan (office).
Readouts of most high-level U.S.-Kuwait meetings indicate that U.S.-Kuwait discussions focus
mainly on security and regional issues.4 Some U.S. democracy promotion funds have been used
to train Kuwaiti civil society activists, enhance the capabilities of independent Kuwaiti media,
and promote women’s rights. In FY2016, about $51,000 went to the National Endowment for
Democracy, for an unspecified grantee to promote civil society in Kuwait. Some of the $4.5
million registered by the “USAID Explorer” database for FY2017, and the $3.1 million registered
for FY2018, was obligated for civil society training and related functions in Kuwait, but it is
unclear what proportion of those funds were spent for Kuwait.5 For FY2018, about $235,000 was
obligated for programs to combat trafficking in persons specifically in Kuwait. No funds were
spent on civil society programs in Kuwait in FY2019, and none was requested for FY2020 or
FY2021, according to the State Department foreign operations budget justifications for FY2021.
Women’s Rights
Kuwaiti women enjoy substantial legal rights, but are not treated equally by custom and tradition.
The law does not specifically prohibit domestic violence, although courts try such cases as
assault. Kuwaiti women who marry non-Kuwaiti men cannot give their spouses or children
Kuwaiti citizenship, although Kuwaiti men can give their foreign spouses and their children
citizenship. Female police officers in public places combat sexual harassment.
Women serve in national appointed positions and, since 2006, have been able to run and vote in
national elections, although the number of women elected to the National Assembly has always
been small (see the table above). Women are allowed to drive and own businesses. An estimated
16% of the oil sector workforce is female. Women run several Kuwaiti organizations dedicated to
women’s rights, such as the Kuwait Women’s Cultural and Social Society,
Trafficking in Persons and Labor Rights6
For eight years ending in 2015, Kuwait was designated by the State Department’s Trafficking in
Persons report as “Tier Three” (worst level). Kuwait’s rating was assessed in the 2016, 2017, and
2018 reports as “Tier 2: Watch List,” and was further upgraded to “Tier 2” in the reports for 2019
and 2020. Both reports credit Kuwait for deploying a specialized unit to initiate more criminal
investigations of trafficking crimes and for increasing prosecutions under anti-trafficking laws.
On broader labor issues, there have been repeated reports of beatings and rapes of domestic
workers, who are almost always expatriates, by their Kuwaiti employers. These reports have
occasionally caused diplomatic difficulties for Kuwait. In February 2018, following reports that a
Filipina maid had been found dead in an apartment freezer in Kuwait, Philippines President
Rodrigo Duterte barred travel by Philippines citizens to Kuwait. In 2016, the Kuwaiti government
set a minimum monthly wage for maids working in Kuwait.
Kuwait’s labor laws protect the right of workers to form and join unions, conduct legal strikes,
and bargain collectively, but contain significant restrictions on labor activism. However, the only

4 For example: The White House. “Remarks by President Obama and Amir Sabah Al-Sabah of Kuwait after Bilateral
Meeting.” September 13, 2013.
5 USAID Explorer Database. Kuwait. FY2017, 2018, and 2019. Accessed in May 2020.
6 The most recent State Department “Trafficking in Person” report is for 2020.
Congressional Research Service

5

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

trade federation authorized by the government, to date, is the Kuwait Trade Union Federation
(KTUF). Foreign workers, with the exception of domestic workers, are allowed to join unions.
Since 2011, some strikes have taken place, including by employees of Kuwait Airways.
Status of Noncitizens and “Stateless Persons“ (Bidoons)
Non-Gulf Arabs, Asians, and stateless residents continue to face discrimination, and the issue of
their citizenship rights remains unresolved. According to Kuwait government figures, there are
approximately 88,000 stateless persons (“bidoons,” the Arabic word for “without”) in the country,
while Human Rights Watch estimated the Bidoon population at more than 100,000 in 2018. In
March 2011, the government set a deadline of 2017 to resolve the status of the Bidoons, but that
deadline was not met. According to the State Department human rights report, since 2010 the
government has given citizenship to small numbers of Bidoons.
Freedom of Expression and Media Freedoms
Since the Arab Spring uprisings of 2011, Kuwait has increasingly restricted freedom of
expression. Since 2014, the government has revoked the citizenship of some naturalized Kuwaitis
for criticizing the government, but it cannot legally revoke the citizenship of Kuwait-born
citizens. In July 2015, Kuwait enacted a cybercrimes law that punishes insulting religious figures,
criticizing the Amir, or harming Kuwait’s relations with other countries.
An official end to government press censorship in 1992 fostered the growth of a vibrant
independent media, but the Press and Publications Law of 2006 establishes topics that are off
limits for publication and discussion. Publishers and bloggers must be licensed by the Ministry of
Information. Kuwait (like other GCC states) has increasingly used and enacted laws against the
use of social media to criticize the government. Kuwait’s penal code (Article 25) provides for up
to five years in jail for “objecting to the rights and authorities of the Amir or faulting him.” On the
other hand, in September 2019 one Kuwaiti court ruled that “such freedom [to express political
opinion on social media] is “enshrined” in the country’s constitution.7
Religious Freedom8
Recent State Department religious freedom reports state that there is no registration requirement
for religious groups, but all non-Muslim religious groups must obtain a license to establish
official places of worship. Religious groups are generally able to worship without interference,
but they report difficulties obtaining permission to construct new facilities. Despite opposition
from Kuwaiti Islamists, the government has licensed seven Christian churches to serve the
approximately 750,000 Christians in Kuwait (almost all are expatriates): Protestant, Roman
Catholic, Greek Catholic, Coptic Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, and Anglican.
About 400 Baha’i’s, 100,000 Buddhists, 250,000 Hindus, and 10,000 Sikhs (mostly noncitizens)
also work in Kuwait. Among Kuwaiti citizens, about 300 are Christian, several are Baha’i, and
none is Jewish. In 2019, Kuwait permitted the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints to
register.
Of the 30% of Kuwait’s population that are Shia Muslims, about half are Arabs originally from
Saudi Arabia, and half are of Persian origin. Kuwaiti Shias are well represented in the rank and
file of the military and security apparatus as well as government, and are able to select their own

7 State Department Human Rights Report for 2019. Kuwait.
8 State Department report on International Religious Freedom for 2019.
Congressional Research Service

6

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

clerics without government interference. However, some Kuwaiti Shias continue to report official
discrimination, including limited access to religious education and places of worship.
U.S.-Kuwait Relations and Defense Cooperation
U.S.-Kuwait relations did not become close until the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), when Kuwait,
then a backer of Iraq, sought U.S. help against Iranian attacks. Prior to that, a U.S. consulate
opened in Kuwait in October 1951 and was upgraded to an embassy upon Kuwait’s independence
from Britain in 1961. Kuwait was the first Gulf state to establish relations with the Soviet Union
in the 1960s, perhaps reflecting the political strength of relatively left-wing Kuwaiti figures. The
U.S. Ambassador to Kuwait is Alina Romanowski, who formerly was the principal deputy
Coordinator for Counterterrorism at the State Department.
The late Amir Sabah met with President Trump on several occasions, most recently in September
2018. His August 2019 meeting with President Trump was not held because of the Amir’s need to
be hospitalized in the United States.
Defense Cooperation Agreement (DCA), Strategic Dialogue, and
Major Non-NATO Ally (MNNA) Status
Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, and the U.S. role in ending the Iraqi occupation,
deepened the U.S.-Kuwait defense relationship. A formal bilateral Defense Cooperation
Agreement (DCA) was signed on September 19, 1991, seven months after the U.S.-led expulsion
of Iraqi forces from Kuwait in Operation Desert Storm. The DCA had an initial duration of 10
years, but remains in effect.9 The text is classified, but reportedly provides for mutual discussions
in the event of a crisis; joint military exercises; U.S. evaluation of, advice to, and training of
Kuwaiti forces; U.S. arms sales; prepositioning of U.S. military equipment; and U.S. access to a
range of Kuwaiti facilities.10 The DCA is accompanied by a Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA),
an agreement that the U.S. Department of Defense typically requires to ensure that U.S. forces are
subject only to U.S. law. Since 2016, the United States and Kuwait have held regular “Strategic
Dialogue” meetings on bilateral security cooperation.11
Kuwait’s military has more than regained its pre-Iraq invasion strength of 17,000. U.S. officials
say that the U.S. training and mentorship has improved the quality of the Kuwaiti military,
particularly the Air Force. Kuwait, like other manpower-short GCC states, has sometimes used
military help from third countries such as Pakistan.12
U.S. Troops in Kuwait and Facilities Used
At the time of the U.S. withdrawal from Iraq in 2011, nearly 14,000 U.S. troops remained in
Kuwait under the DCA.13 According to the March 2020 State Department factsheet citied earlier,
“Approximately 13,500 U.S. forces are based in Kuwait, primarily at Camp Arifjan and Ali al

9 Department of State fact sheet. “U.S. Security Cooperation with Kuwait.” March 20, 2020.
10 Hajjar, Sami. U.S. Military Presence in the Gulf: Challenges and Prospects. U.S. Army War College, Strategic
Studies Institute.
11 Department of State. Remarks with Kuwait First Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister Sheikh Sabah al-
Khaled al-Hamad al-Saba at the U.S.-Kuwait Strategic Dialogue.
12 Middle East Media Research Institute. April 22, 2014.
13 “In Kuwait, Panetta Affirms U.S. Commitment to Middle East,” New York Times, December 11, 2012.
Congressional Research Service

7

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

Salem Air Base. Only Germany, Japan, and South Korea host more U.S. forces than Kuwait does.
The United States currently maintains 2,200 Mine Resistant Ambush Protected vehicles in
Kuwait. The majority of these vehicles are prepositioned for any necessary U.S. Army operations,
and the remainder are contracted for distribution to partners throughout the region” The U.S.
force, composed largely of Army troops, gives the United States the capability to quickly deploy
ground forces in the region. Kuwait hosts the headquarters for the U.S.-led operations against the
Islamic State (Operation Inherent Resolve) and has allowed coalition partners in that military
campaign. The U.S. force in Kuwait is about one-third of the total U.S. forces deployed in and
around the Gulf, including in Iraq and Afghanistan.14
In addition to deploying to Camp Arifjan (the main U.S. headquarters in Kuwait, 40 miles south
of Kuwait City) and Ali Al Salem Air Base, U.S. forces train at a firing range called Camp
Buehring (near the border with Saudi Arabia) and serve at Ahmad al-Jabir Air Base and a naval
facility called Camp Patriot. U.S. forces use a large facility at Kuwait’s international airport as the
largest U.S. air logistics in the region. This function is scheduled to relocate to West Al Mubarak
Air Base when that facility is completed in 2023.15 U.S. armor prepositioned in Kuwait was used
for the 2003 invasion of Iraq. (In December 2005, U.S. forces vacated Camp Doha, the
headquarters for U.S. forces in Kuwait during the 1990s.)
Major Non-NATO Ally Status
Recognizing Kuwait’s consistent and multifaceted cooperation with the United States, on April 1,
2004, the George W. Bush Administration designated Kuwait as a “major non-NATO ally
(MNNA),” a designation held by only one other Gulf state (Bahrain). The designation qualifies
Kuwait for increased defense-related research and development cooperation with the United
States, but does not expedite U.S. executive branch approval of arms sales to Kuwait.
Operational Defense Cooperation: 1980s-the Present
The following sections discuss U.S.-Kuwait defense cooperation in regional conflicts. Since
1996, Kuwait has contributed approximately $200 million per year to the costs of U.S. military
operations to contain and stabilize Iraq.16Since 2011, the funds have consisted primarily of
contributions to U.S. military construction projects in Kuwait.
1980s: Iran-Iraq War
During the Iran-Iraq War, Iran had sought to compel Kuwait to end its financial and logistical
support for Iraq by striking Kuwaiti oil facilities, such as the Al Ahmadi terminal, with cruise
missiles. In 1987-1988, the United States established a U.S. naval escort and tanker reflagging
program to protect Kuwaiti and international shipping from Iranian naval attacks (Operation
Earnest Will).

14 U.S. Central Command figures provided to the Congressional Research Service. January 2020.
15 Naser al-Wasmi. “Kuwait to host largest US military airport in Middle East.” The National, July 15, 2018.
16 White House Office of Management and Budget (OMB), Public Budget Database, “Budget Authority XLSX.”
https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/02/budauth_fy21.xlsx.
Congressional Research Service

8

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

1990s: Operation Desert Storm and Iraq Containment
Kuwait’s leaders were shaken by the August 2, 1990, Iraqi invasion and occupation of Kuwait,
which lasted until U.S.-led coalition forces of nearly 500,000 expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait
in “Operation Desert Storm” (January 16, 1991-February 28, 1991). Kuwait’s leaders, who spent
the occupation period in Saudi Arabia, were restored to power. Kuwait paid $16.059 billion to
offset the U.S. incremental war costs.17
After the war, about 4,000 U.S. military personnel—and enough prepositioned U.S. armor to
outfit two combat brigades—were stationed at Kuwaiti facilities to contain Iraq. The 1992-2003
enforcement of a “no fly zone” over southern Iraq (Operation Southern Watch, OSW) involved
1,000 U.S. Air Force personnel deployed at Kuwaiti air bases. In addition to contributing to the
costs of U.S. military operations, Kuwait furnished two-thirds of the $52 million per year U.N.
budget for the 1991-2003 Iraq-Kuwait Observer Mission (UNIKOM) that monitored the Iraq-
Kuwait border.18
2003-2011: Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) and Post-Saddam Iraq
Kuwait supported the U.S. decision to militarily overthrow Saddam Hussein, and hosted the bulk
of the U.S. OIF force of about 250,000, as well as the other coalition troops that entered Iraq in
March 2003. Kuwait also provided $266 million to support the U.S. combat effort. Kuwaiti forces
did not enter Iraq. During 2003-2011, there were about 25,000 U.S. troops based in Kuwait, not
including those deploying to Iraq.
2014-Present: Operation Inherent Resolve
Kuwait, along with the other GCC states, joined the U.S.-led coalition against the Islamic State in
September 2014. It has hosted the operational headquarters for Operation Inherent Resolve (OIR).
“ARCENT”—the U.S. Army component of U.S. Central Command (CENTCOM)—is based in
Kuwait, and the ARCENT commander serves as overall U.S. commander of OIR. Kuwait also
has allowed other coalition partners to base military equipment for their participation in OIR.19
Kuwait did not conduct any air strikes against the Islamic State in Syria.
Defense Cooperation with Other Countries/NATO Center
Kuwait has supported efforts to promote greater military coordination among the GCC countries,
including the GCC decision in 2013 to form a joint military command. Kuwait has also sought
cooperation with other non-Arab U.S. partners. In December 2011, NATO and Kuwait began
discussing opening a NATO center in Kuwait City as part of the Istanbul Cooperation Initiative
(ICI) initiated in 2004. The NATO center, formally titled the NATO-ICI Regional Center, opened
on January 24, 2017.20 On October 1, 2018, the NATO-ICI Regional Center held its first annual
meeting to review the center’s performance.21 In November 2018, Kuwait opened a diplomatic
office at NATO. In November 2017, Kuwait signed an agreement with France to strengthen their
defense cooperation. The two countries hold military exercises in Kuwait each November.

17 Office of Management and Budget from data provided by Departments of Defense, State, and Treasury. Provided to
CRS, 1991.
18 Report of the Secretary-General on the UN Iraq-Kuwait Observation Mission (S/2003/393). March 31, 2003.
19 “Kuwait Plays Uneasy Host as Canadian Jets Join Anti-ISIS Campaign.” Canada Television News, October 29, 2014.
20 NATO press announcement. January 24, 2017.
21 Kuwait News Agency. October 1, 2018.
Congressional Research Service

9

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

U.S. Arms Sales to Kuwait
U.S. arms sales to Kuwait are intended, according to Defense Department notification to
Congress, to promote interoperability with U.S. forces. Kuwait is considered a wealthy state that
can fund its own purchases. Kuwait has, in some years, received small amounts of U.S. assistance
in order to qualify Kuwait for a discount to send its officers for training in the United States, but it
is not eligible to receive U.S. excess defense articles. As of March 2020, according to the State
Department security cooperation fact sheet cited above, the United States has $19.3 billion in
active government-to-government Foreign Military Sales (FMS) cases. Among the major U.S.
sales to Kuwait are:
 Missile Defense Systems. Since the late 1990s, Kuwait has bought U.S.-made
Patriot antimissile fire units as well as allowed the United States to deploy U.S.-
owned Patriots in Kuwait.22 Kuwait has not announced whether it will buy the
more sophisticated U.S.-made Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)
missile defense system. On May 28, 2020, the Defense Security Cooperation
Agency said the State Department had approved the sale of 84 Patriot Advanced
Capability (PAC-3) interceptor missiles and related equipment for an estimated
cost of $800 million.23
 Combat Aircraft/F-18s. The core of Kuwait’s fleet of combat aircraft is 40
F/A-18 combat aircraft Kuwait bought in 1992. In 2015, Kuwait asked to buy up
to 40 additional F/A-18s.24 The Obama Administration notified Congress of the
sale of up to 32 F-18s. Kuwait later ordered 28 of them (estimated value of $5
billion).25
 Tanks. In 1993, Kuwait bought 218 M1A2 tanks at a value of $1.9 billion.
Delivery was completed in 1998. Kuwait has not bought U.S. tanks since, but in
2017 it bought new tank hulls, armament, and engines for its U.S.-made tank
force, at an estimated sale value of $29 million.26
 Apache Helicopters. In September 2002, Kuwait bought 16 AH-64 (Apache)
attack helicopters, valued at about $940 million.
 Tactical Missiles. In 2008, Kuwait bought 120 AIM-120C-7 Advanced Medium
Range Air-to-Air Missiles (AMRAAM). On July 30, 2018, DSCA notified
Congress of a potential sale to Kuwait of 300 additional Hellfire air-to-ground
missiles, with an estimated value of $30.4 million.
International Military Education and Training (IMET)
In some past years (FY2007-2010), Kuwait received very small amounts ($10,000-$20,000 per
year) in International Military Education and Training (IMET) funding. The aid was provided
primarily to qualify Kuwait for discounts on the training it pays for its officers to undergo in the
United States. Kuwait spends a total of about $10 million per year on this program, which funds

22 “Kuwait Calls U.S. Decision to Remove Missile Systems ‘Routine.’” Reuters, September 26, 2018.
23 “U.S. State Department clears $1.4 billion sale of Patriot air and missile system to Kuwait.” Reuters, May 8, 2020.
24 “Kuwait Says Sticks to F-18 Jets Despite Approval Delays.” Reuters, January 21, 2016; “Kuwait to Sign Eurofighter
Jet Deal with Italy: Minister. Gulf News, February 12, 2016. Defense Security Cooperation Agency, The Government
of Kuwait–F/A-18E/F Super Hornet Aircraft with Support. Transmittal No. 16-21. November 17, 2016.
25 White House. Remarks by President Trump and Emir Sabah al-Ahmed al-Jaber al-Sabah of Kuwait in Joint Press
Conference. September 7, 2017.
26 DSCA Transmittal Number 17-16. October 16, 2017.
Congressional Research Service

10

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

approximately 200 Kuwaiti military personnel to study intelligence, pilot training, and other
disciplines at various U.S. military institutions.
Foreign Policy Issues
Kuwait has long been aligned with the United States and the other GCC states and it has sought to
foster GCC unity as an effective means for countering regional threats. Amir Sabah was the key
Gulf mediator of the intra-GCC rift that erupted in June 2017 when Saudi Arabia, UAE, and
Bahrain—asserting that Qatar implements policies fundamentally at odds with other GCC
states—broke relations with Qatar and denied it land, air, and sea access to their territories. Then-
Secretary of State Rex Tillerson conducted largely unsuccessful “shuttle diplomacy” on the issue
from Kuwait in July 2017, and later that year the late Amir worked with President Trump to
broker brief direct talks between Qatar’s Amir Shaykh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani and Saudi
Arabia’s Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman Al Saud. Kuwait did not join Saudi Arabia,
Bahrain, and UAE in withdrawing their ambassadors from Qatar for several months in 2014 over
similar issues. It is not known whether Amir Nawwaf will be as active as was Amir Sabah in
attempting to mediate an end to the intra-GCC rift.
In at least one instance, Kuwait has acted defend the leaders of other GCC countries from internal
unrest. Kuwait sent a naval unit to support the March 14, 2011, intervention of the GCC’s
“Peninsula Shield” unit to assist Bahraini security forces against an uprising that began that
month, but did not send ground troops into Bahrain. The Kuwaiti naval unit departed in July
2011. Kuwait’s involvement came despite opposition from some Kuwaiti Shias.
Relations with Iraq
Kuwait’s contentious relationship with Iraq long predated the rule of Saddam Hussein. At the
1922 Conference of Al-ʿUqayr, Britain negotiated the Kuwait-Saudi border, with substantial
territorial loss to Kuwait. A memorandum in 1923 set out the border with Iraq on the basis of an
unratified 1913 convention. The first Iraqi claim to Kuwait surfaced in 1938, the year oil was
discovered in the emirate. Although neither Iraq nor the Ottoman Empire had ever actually ruled
Kuwait, Iraq asserted a claim to at least part of Kuwait, notably the islands of Bubiyan and Al-
Warbah. Immediately after Britain recognized Kuwait’s independence in June 1961, Iraq renewed
its claim, which was rebuffed by British and Arab League forces. It was not until October 1963
that Iraq formally recognized both Kuwait’s independence and, subsequently, its borders, while
continuing to press for access to the islands.
The threat from Saddam Hussein’s rule in Iraq was not the only concern for Kuwait. Pro-Iranian
Shia opposition groups in Iraq conducted attacks in Kuwait. The December 1983 bombings of the
U.S. and French embassies in Kuwait and an attempted assassination of the Amir in May 1985
were attributed to the Iran-inspired Iraqi Da’wa (Islamic Call) Party. Seventeen Da’wa activists
were arrested for those attacks. Da’wa activists hijacked a Kuwait Airlines plane in 1987.
Even though two of Iraq’s post-Saddam leaders (Nuri al-Maliki and Haider Al Abadi) had been
members of the Da’wa Party’s political wing, Kuwait has built political ties to them and other
Shia politicians in Iraq that have been prominent in Iraq’s post-Saddam leadership. On July 18,
2008, Kuwait named its first ambassador to Iraq since the 1990 Iraqi invasion. On January 12,
2011, then-Prime Minister Nasser became the first Kuwait Prime Minister to visit Iraq since the
invasion. Then-Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Maliki visited Kuwait in 2011 and 2012, paving the
way for Amir Sabah’s attendance at the March 27-29, 2012, Arab League summit in Baghdad that
marked Iraq’s return to the Arab fold. The speaker of Kuwait’s National Assembly visited Iraq on
Congressional Research Service

11

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

February 28, 2019, to mark the anniversary of the end of the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait. Kuwait
ran a humanitarian operation center (HOC) that gave over $550 million in assistance to Iraqis
from 2003 to 2011. In 2008, Kuwait hosted a regional conference on Iraq’s stability attended by
the United States and Iran. In 2018, Kuwait held a conference that raised $30 billion to help Iraq
reconstruct after its announced defeat of the Islamic State organization, which seized large parts
of Iraqi territory in 2014. Amir Nawwaf is likely to continue the engagement with Iraqi leaders.
Residual Issues from the Iraqi Invasion
Some residual issues from the Iraqi invasion remain. In August 2012, the Iraqi government vowed
to “end all pending issues with Kuwait before the start of [2013]”—a statement that reflected
Iraq’s insistence that the U.N. Security Council remove any “Chapter 7” (of the U.N. Charter)
mandates on Iraq stemming from the invasion. During a visit to Iraq by Kuwait’s Prime Minister
on June 12, 2013, the two countries agreed to take the issues of still-missing Kuwaitis and
Kuwaiti property out of the Chapter 7 supervision of the United Nations and replace them with
alternative mechanisms, as discussed below. On December 15, 2010, the U.N. Security Council
passed three resolutions—1956, 1957, and 1958—that ended Saddam-era sanctions against Iraq
but did not end the “Chapter 7” U.N. mandate or the 5% automatic revenue deductions for
reparations payments, discussed below.
Reparations Payments. Until 2014, 5% of Iraq’s oil revenues were devoted to funding a U.N.
escrow account that, since 1991, has been compensating the victims of the Iraqi invasion of
Kuwait. The U.N. Compensation Commission (UNCC), created by the post-Desert Storm U.N.
resolutions, paid out about $52 billion awarded to over 100 governments and 1.5 million
individual claimants by the time it ended in April 2015. As of that time, the last remaining amount
to be paid was $4.6 billion of a $14.7 billion awarded for damage to Kuwaiti oilfields during the
Iraqi occupation. Since then, Iraq has reduced the outstanding balance to about $3.7 billion.27 In
the context of the COVID-19 outbreak in early 2020, Iraq has asked Kuwait to cancel or accept a
delay in further payments of reparations.
Missing Kuwaitis and Kuwaiti National Archives. The U.N. resolutions of December 2010
continued the effort, required under post-1991 war U.N. Security Council resolutions (primarily
687), to resolve the fate of the 605 Kuwaitis and third party nationals missing and presumed dead
from the 1991 war, as well as that of the Kuwaiti national archives. A U.N. envoy, Gennady
Tarasov, was U.N. High-Level Coordinator for these issues. The June 16, 2013, visit to Iraq of the
Kuwaiti Prime Minister resulted in an Iraq-Kuwait joint recommendation to remove these issues
of missing property and persons from the Chapter 7 U.N. mandate. That recommendation was
endorsed in the U.N. Secretary-General’s report of June 17, 2013. U.N. Security Council
Resolution 2107 of June 27, 2013, abolished the High-Level Coordinator mandate and transferred
the supervision of these issues to the U.N. Assistance Mission—Iraq (UNAMI)—under Chapter
VI of the U.N. Charter.28
As of the 2003 U.S. invasion of Iraq, the search process had located the remains of 236 Kuwaitis,
leaving 369 cases unresolved. In August 2019, Iraq handed over to Kuwait the remains of 48
Kuwaiti citizens discovered in a mass grave in southern Iraq.29 Another 21 remains were handed
over in September 2020, leaving about 300 cases unresolved.

27 “Kuwait receives $270m in war reparations.” The Times, July 23, 2019.
28 Actions under Chapter VI do not carry the enforcement mechanisms of those adopted under Chapter VII.
29 “Iraq Hands over Human Remains to Kuwait.” Reuters, August 8, 2019.
Congressional Research Service

12

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

As far as the Kuwaiti National Archives, Annex I to a June 17, 2013, report (U.N. document
S/2013/357) contained a list of all the Kuwaiti property returned to Kuwait by Iraq since 2002. In
June 2012, Iraq returned to Kuwait numerous boxes of tapes from Kuwait’s state radio, books
belonging to Kuwait University, and keys to Kuwait’s Central Bank. In November 2018, Iraqi
President Barham Salih brought to Kuwait some Kuwaiti archival material that had been found.
Kuwait-Iraq Border. Disputes over the Iraq-Kuwait border, some of which apparently were a
factor in Iraq’s 1990 invasion of Kuwait, have been mostly resolved. Under post-1991 Gulf War
U.N. Security Council Resolution 833, the Council accepted the U.N.-demarcated border between
them. Kuwait insisted that post-Saddam Iraqi governments formally acknowledge Iraq’s
commitments under that resolution to pay some of the costs of border markings and signs. As a
consequence of the March 2012 Maliki visit to Kuwait, Iraq agreed to pay its portion of the costs
of maintaining the border markings. Sea border markings and related issues were resolved in
2013. In 2017, Iraq ceded to Kuwait greater access to the shared Khor Abdullah waterway.
Other Outstanding Bilateral Disputes/Iraqi Airways. Kuwait has not forgiven about $25 billion
in Saddam-era debt, but Kuwait has not apparently been pressing the Iraqi government for
payment. The March 2012 Maliki visit resolved Kuwait Airways’ assertion that Iraq owed Kuwait
$1.2 billion for planes and parts stolen during the Iraqi invasion with agreement for Iraq to pay
Kuwait $300 million in compensation, and to invest $200 million in an Iraq-Kuwait joint airline
venture. Subsequent to the visit, Iraq-Kuwait direct flights resumed.
Iran
Kuwait’s policy toward Iran, consisting of high-level engagement with Iran, is unlikely to change
under Amir Nawwaf. In the several years after the Iraqi invasion, Kuwait often hosted pro-Iranian
anti-Saddam Iraqi Shia oppositionists for talks, some of whom were members of groups that had
conducted attacks in Kuwait in the 1980s. Amir Sabah visited Iran in June 2014, including
meetings with Iran’s Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamene’i. Iran’s President Hassan Rouhani
visited Kuwait and Oman in February 2017, in an unsuccessful attempt to establish a broader
Iran-GCC dialogue.
Yet, as a GCC and Sunni Arab state and a close U.S. ally, Kuwaiti leaders support U.S. efforts to
reduce Iran’s efforts to expand its influence in the region. Kuwaiti firms have not been cited for
any violations of U.S. sanctions against Iran, and Kuwait has not pursued a plan to import Iranian
natural gas. In January 2016, Kuwait downgraded relations with Iran over the sacking of Saudi
diplomatic facilities in Iran by demonstrators protesting the Saudi execution of dissident Saudi
Shia cleric Nimr al Baqr Al Nimr.
Kuwait publicly supported the 2015 Iran nuclear agreement (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action,
JCPOA), and Kuwait’s Foreign Ministry reacted to the Trump Administration’s May 8, 2018,
announcement of its exit from the JCPOA by expressing “understanding” that U.S. suggestions
for improving the accord were not adopted.30 Kuwaiti officials have indicated that the country
will join a U.S.-backed Middle East Strategic Alliance (MESA) to counter Iran, if such a bloc is
formed, but discussions on the pact have generally stalled amid the continuing intra-GCC rift.
Kuwait has indicated to U.S. officials an intent to join, but has not to date formally joined, the
U.S.-led maritime security coalition to try to deter further Iranian attacks on Gulf commercial
shipping (International Maritime Security Construct) that was inaugurated in Bahrain in

30 “Kuwait Follows up U.S. Announcement on Iran’s Nuclear Deal with Great Interest.” Kuwait News Agency, May 9,
2018.
Congressional Research Service

13

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

November 2019.31 Kuwait has also purchased missile defense equipment that supports U.S.
efforts to forge a joint GCC missile defense network against Iran. At the same time, Kuwait has
advocated de-escalation of U.S.-Iran tensions – tensions that have led to some hostilities.32
Kuwait has been vigilant in preventing Iran from undermining security inside Kuwait. In 2010,
Kuwait arrested some Kuwaiti civil servants and stateless residents for allegedly helping the
IRGC-QF plot to blow up Kuwaiti energy facilities.33 In September 2015, Kuwait arrested 25
Kuwaiti Shias and one Iranian who had reportedly hidden explosives near the border with Iraq.34
In January 2016, a criminal court sentenced two of the defendants, including the Iranian (in
absentia), to death, and 12 to prison terms. Another 12 were acquitted.
Syria
Kuwait’s leaders asserted that Syrian President Bashar Al Asad should leave office in the face of
the 2011 rebellion there and Kuwait, along with the other GCC states, closed its embassy in
Damascus in 2012. Kuwaiti officials say the government has not funded or armed any Syrian
rebel groups. In December 2014, Kuwait allowed Syria to reopen its embassy in Kuwait to
perform consular services for the approximately 140,000 Syrians living there. Kuwaiti officials
have said they would work within an Arab League consensus on the question of rebuilding ties to
the Asad regime.35
Kuwait has focused on helping civilian victims of the conflicts in Syria and Iraq, including
hosting several major donors’ conferences for victims of the Syria and co-chairing a donors’
conference for victims of the conflict, held on April 4-5, 2017, in Brussels. It has provided several
billion in humanitarian support for this purpose.36 All of Kuwait’s donations have been given to
nine U.N. agencies and to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC). Kuwait hosts
about 145,000 Syrians who fled that conflict.
In October 2018, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE donated $2.5 billion to Jordan to help it
cope with the financial burdens of hosting Syrian and Iraqi refugees.
Yemen
After an Arab Spring-related uprising in Yemen in 2011, Kuwait and its GCC allies brokered a
transition that led to the departure of longtime President Ali Abdullah Saleh in January 2012.
However, in January 2015, the elected government of Abdu Rabbu Mansour Hadi fled in the face
of an offensive by Iran-backed Zaydi Shia Houthi rebels. In March 2015, Kuwait joined the
Saudi-led coalition that intervened militarily to try to restore the Hadi government. Kuwait’s has
conducted air strikes on Houthi-led positions using Kuwait’s U.S.-made F-18s.37 In part because
of its willingness to engage Iran, the key backer of the Houthis, Kuwait has also hosted U.N.-
mediated talks between the warring sides.

31 “Qatar, Kuwait told U.S. they will join naval coalition, official says.” Reuters, November 25, 2019.
32 See: CRS Report R45795, U.S.-Iran Conflict and Implications for U.S. Policy, by Kenneth Katzman, Kathleen J.
McInnis, and Clayton Thomas
33 “Iran Cell Planned Attacks in Kuwait, Minister Says. Reuters, April 21, 2011.
34 “Kuwait charges 'terror cell tied to Iran and Hezbollah'” Al Jazeera, September 1, 2015.
35 “Kuwait expects more Arab countries to reopen embassies in Damascus: KUNA.” Reuters, December 31, 2018.
36 Theodore Karasik and Tristan Ober” Kuwait’s Apprehension about Normalizing Relations with Syria.” Atlantic
Council, May 21, 2019.
37 Kuwait Air Force chief inspects troops with coalition in Yemen. Kuwait News Agency, March 13, 2018.
Congressional Research Service

14

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

Kuwaiti Policy on Other Regional Conflicts and Issues
Kuwait’s positions do not always align with all of its GCC partners.
Egypt/Muslim Brotherhood
Kuwaiti leaders, as do those of Saudi Arabia and the UAE, claim that the Islamist organization
Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt supports Brotherhood-linked oppositionists in the GCC, including
members of Kuwait’s Brotherhood-linked factions. Since President Mohammad Morsi, a senior
Brotherhood figure who was elected president in 2012, was deposed by the Egyptian military in
July 2013, Kuwait has given at least $8 billion to Egypt in grants, loans, and investments. Kuwait
also has arrested and deported some Egyptians in Kuwait for conducting (pro-Muslim
Brotherhood) political activities.
Palestinian-Israeli Dispute
Kuwaiti leaders have been at odds with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and the
Palestinian Authority (PA)38 over then-Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat for opposing war to end
Iraq’s occupation of Kuwait. About 450,000 Palestinian workers were expelled from Kuwait after
the 1991 war. But, Kuwait supports a “two-state solution: on the Israeli-Palestinian dispute and
Kuwait has increased donations to the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) to
about $50 million per year, since the Trump Administration ended U.S. donations to that
organization in January 2018.39
Kuwait opposed the Trump Administration’s recognition that Israel’s capital is in Jerusalem, and
it did not attend the June 2019 U.S.-sponsored “workshop” in Bahrain at which the Trump
Administration presented its economic proposals for Israeli-Palestinian peace. Yet, Kuwait’s
Foreign Ministers attended a U.S.-sponsored Middle East conference in Warsaw, Poland during
February 13-14, 2019, during which Arab state foreign ministers discussed regional topics
alongside Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Kuwaiti officials have expressed
skepticism about efforts over the past decade by the UAE, Bahrain, and Saudi Arabia to building
quiet ties to Israel government.40 In the days after the August 2020 UAE announcement that it
would normalize relations with Israel, a major Kuwaiti paper quoted unnamed Kuwaiti leaders as
saying that “Our stance on Israel has not changed, following the UAE normalization agreement,
and we will be the last to normalize relations.”41 However, after the UAE and Bahrain signed the
“Abraham Accords” with Israel at the White House on September 15, 2020, President Trump,
following a meeting with Amir Sabah’s son, said: The Kuwaitis “are so excited that we signed the
first two countries and I think they’ll end up fairly quickly being a part of it.”42
Earlier, during 1992 to 1997, Kuwait attended—but did not host—multilateral working group
talks with Israel on arms control, water resources, refugees, and other issues related to Arab-
Israeli peace negotiations. In 1994, Kuwait and the other GCC states ceased enforcement of the
secondary (trade with firms that deal with Israel) and tertiary (trade with firms that do business
with blacklisted firms) Arab boycotts of Israel. However, Kuwait did not, as did Qatar and Oman,

38 “Kuwait Seizes the Palestinian Cause.” Jerusalem Post, reprinted in Middle East Forum. June 16, 2018.
39 See: CRS Report RS22967, U.S. Foreign Aid to the Palestinians, by Jim Zanotti.
40 “Kuwait Rejects Israel Tie Normalisation Claims.” Gulf News, February 17, 2019.
41 “Kuwait says it’ll be ‘last to normalize’ with Israel, will stand by Palestinians.” Times of Israel, August 16, 2020.
42 “Trump says Kuwait may soon normalize ties with Israel.” Times of Israel, September 19, 2020.
Congressional Research Service

15

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

subsequently exchange trade offices with Israel, and it retained the Arab League boycott on trade
with Israel (“primary boycott”).
North Korea
Like other GCC states, Kuwait has hosted a significant number of North Korean laborers (about
3,000), whose earnings are mostly remitted to the North Korean government. In concert with
increased U.S. pressure on North Korea in 2017, Kuwait expelled North Korea’s ambassador (the
only North Korean ambassador in the Gulf) and four other North Korean diplomats in September
2017. North Korea’s embassy in Kuwait City subsequently remained open but with only a small
staff. Kuwait also ceased renewing visas for North Korean workers, causing them to start leaving,
and it halted trade ties and direct flights between the two.43
Domestic Terrorism and Counterterrorism Cooperation44
Kuwait has prevented most, but not all, terrorist attacks by the Islamic State and other groups,
since an Islamic State attack on a mosque in Kuwait City on June 26, 2015, killed 27 persons. In
July 2016, Kuwait said its security forces thwarted three planned Islamic State terrorist attacks in
Kuwait, including a plot to blow up a Shia mosque.45 In October 2016, an Islamic State-inspired
individual of Egyptian origin drove a truck into a vehicle carrying U.S. military personnel, but no
U.S. personnel were injured or killed. In April 2017, a suspected mid-ranking leader of the
Islamic State was extradited from the Philippines to Kuwait for involvement in operational
planning to attack Kuwait.46 Kuwait has claimed to have uncovered and foiled multiple Iran-
backed attacks in Kuwait in recent years. There were no terrorist incidents reported in Kuwait in
2019 or thus far in 2020.
U.S. agencies help Kuwait’s counterterrorism efforts, border control, and export controls. State
Department fact sheets and reports, referenced earlier, state that Kuwait’s Ministry of Interior and
National Guard participate in U.S. programs to work with local counterterrorism units via training
and bilateral exercises. At the September 2017, U.S.-Kuwait Strategic Dialogue meeting in
Washington, DC, Kuwait’s Ministry of Interior signed a counterterrorism information sharing
arrangement with the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), and the U.S. Customs and
Border Control signed an agreement to share customs information with Kuwait’s director general
of customs. Kuwait also has ratified a Saudi-led GCC “Internal Security Pact” to enhance
regional counterterrorism cooperation. In 2011, Kuwait introduced biometric fingerprinting at
Kuwait International Airport and has since extended that system to land and sea entry points.
Kuwait long sought the return of two prisoners held at the U.S. facility in Guantanamo Bay,
Cuba, under accusation of belonging to Al Qaeda. Both were returned to Kuwait by January 2016.
Kuwait built a rehabilitation center to reintegrate them into society after their return.
Terrorism Financing Issues
The State Department report on international terrorism for 2019 states that: “More effective
measures are needed to prevent charitable donations being routed to regional terrorist groups or
support for educational and religious advocacy efforts that encourage discrimination and

43 “Qatar, Kuwait Stop Renewing Visas for North Korean Workers.” Reuters, September 19, 2017.
44 Information in this section from: State Department Country Reports on Terrorism: 2019.
45 “Kuwait Says It Thwarted 3 Planned ISIS Attacks.” Reuters, July 3, 2016.
46 Philippine Daily Inquirer, April 14, 2017.
Congressional Research Service

16

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

violence.” Earlier State Department reports cited the Central Bank of Kuwait for implementing a
“same business-day” turnaround policy for imposing U.N. terrorism financing-related measures
requiring banks to monitor U.N. sanctions lists proactively. A 2013 Kuwaiti law provided a legal
basis to prosecute terrorism-related crimes and freeze terrorist assets. In June 2015, the National
Assembly passed a law that criminalized online fundraising for terrorist purposes.
Kuwait is a member of the Middle East North Africa Financial Action Task Force (MENAFATF).
Kuwait developed an action plan to meet the broader FATF’s standards of anti-money laundering
and counterterrorism financing (AML/CTF) and, in 2014, Kuwait was deemed no longer deficient
on AML/CFT by the FATF. In 2017, Kuwait joined two counter terrorism-financing conventions,
the Egmont Group and the U.S.-GCC “Terrorist Financing Targeting Center” (TFTC). However,
Kuwait declined to designate Lebanese Hezbollah Secretary-General Hassan Nasrallah as a
sanctioned entity.
Kuwait’s efforts to counter terrorism financing have reduced strains between Kuwait and the
United States in past years. A Department of the Treasury official said on March 4, 2014, that the
appointment of a leading Kuwaiti donor to the Al Qaeda affiliate in Syria, Al Nusra Front, Nayef
al-Ajmi, as Minister of Justice and Minister of Islamic Endowments (Awqaf), was “a step in the
wrong direction.”47 Subsequently, Ajmi resigned his posts.48 In August 2014, the Department of
the Treasury imposed sanctions on two Ajmi tribe members and one other Kuwaiti49 under
Executive Order 13224, which sanctions entities involved in terrorism. In March 2017, two
Kuwaitis were sanctioned by the United Nations Security Council for allegedly providing
financial support to Al Nusra Front, and the Department of the Treasury sanctioned a Kuwaiti
person under E.O 13324 for providing support to Al Nusrah Front and Al Qaeda. Earlier, in June
2008, the Department of the Treasury froze the assets of a Kuwait-based charity—the Islamic
Heritage Restoration Society—for alleged links to Al Qaeda, under E.O. 13224.
Countering Violent Extremism. State Department terrorism reports also praise Kuwait’s programs
that encourage moderation in Islam in Kuwait. The government supports a number of local
counter-messaging campaigns on radio, television, and billboards. In 2017, the government
established a new Directorate for Cybersecurity within the Higher Authority for Communication
to “fight violent extremism.” In 2018, Kuwait’s Ministry of Education implemented a program to
counter extremist ideology in schools through teacher training and student counseling. The
Kuwait Moderation Center, which operates under the supervision of the Ministry of Religious
Endowments, sponsors programs designed to promote religious tolerance, including establishing
working groups to reduce sectarian conflict, holding symposia on protecting the rights of non-
Muslims in a Muslim society, and a program in the school system to promote diversity and
tolerance and combat sectarianism.
U.S. Assistance
Although Kuwait is a wealthy state that gets virtually no U.S. foreign assistance, the United
States has, at times, provided very small amounts of aid in the form of training to improve
Kuwait’s counter terrorism financing and law enforcement authorities.50 In FY2016, about $3,000
was provided for counter-narcotics programs. For FY2017, about $4 million (mostly Economic
Support Funds, ESF) was obligated for programs in Kuwait to combat weapons of mass

47 Department of the Treasury. Remarks of Under Secretary for Terrorism and Financial Intelligence David Cohen
before the Center for New American Security on “Confronting New Threats in Terrorist Financing.” March 4, 2014.
48 Karen DeYoung. “Kuwait Cabinet Minister Resigns after Allegations.” May 13, 2014.
49 Department of the Treasury, Office of the Press Secretary. August 6, 2014.
50 Obligations provided in: USAID “Explorer” Database, accessed in July 2019.
Congressional Research Service

17

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

destruction, and about $460,000 was provided by DOD for counter-narcotics programs. No funds
have been provided since or requested for FY2021, according to the USAID Explorer database
and State Department budget documents.
Economic Issues
Global economic experts recommend that Kuwait should reduce its economic dependence on oil
exports, but hydrocarbons sales still represent about 90% of government export revenues and
about 54% of its gross domestic product (GDP).51 Because Kuwait requires that crude oil sell for
about nearly $75 per barrel to balance its budget—well above prices for most of the time since
2014—Kuwait has run budget deficits of about $15 billion per year since 2015. Kuwait’s
budgetary deficiencies have been worsened by the COVID-19 pandemic that has caused oil prices
to fall to well below Kuwait’s “break-even price.”
Even before the COVID-19 outbreak, which the government responded to in part with a fifteen-
day lockdown (May 15-30) and which has caused over 675 deaths in the country,52 Kuwait had
been deferring capital infrastructure investment and reducing public sector salaries and subsidies,
according to the IMF and other observers.
Kuwait has a large sovereign wealth fund, managed by the Kuwait Investment Authority, with
holdings estimated at nearly $600 billion.53 Kuwait produces about 2.5 million barrels per day
(mbd) of crude oil, adhering to OPEC production agreements.
Using National Assembly legislation that took effect in 2010, the government has moved to
privatize some state-owned industries. However, the privatization of Kuwait Airways was
cancelled, in part because of opposition from the airline’s workforce. Domestic political disputes
delayed opening Kuwait’s northern oil fields to foreign investment to generate about 500,000
barrels per day of extra production. However, as part of the country’s “New Kuwait 2035”
economic strategy, in March 2018, Kuwait announced a vision to develop a large “Northern
Gateway” economic opportunity zone encompassing five natural islands in northern Kuwait.54
That project has since been retitled “Silk City,” after attracting investment from China as part of
that country’s region-wide Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). The project, which might involve
almost $90 billion in total investment, will encompass a new airport, railways, and port facilities.
Nuclear Power. As do other Gulf states, Kuwait sees peaceful uses of nuclear energy as important
to its economy over the long term. In 2012, Kuwait formally abandoned plans announced in 2011
to build up to four nuclear power reactors, delegating nuclear power research to its Kuwait
Institute for Scientific Research (KISR). Kuwait is cooperating with the International Atomic
Energy Agency (IAEA) to ensure international oversight of any nuclear work in Kuwait. In
FY2015, the United States provided about $38,000 to help train Kuwaiti personnel in nuclear
security issues, and about $58,000 was provided in FY2016 for this purpose. No U.S. funds have
been provided since, according to the USAID Explorer Database.
U.S.-Kuwait Economic and Commercial Issues
In 1994, Kuwait became a founding member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). In
February 2004, the United States and Kuwait signed a Trade and Investment Framework

51 World Bank. “Kuwait's Economic Update — April 2020.” April 16, 2020.
52 Johns Hopkins Coronavirus Resource Center. October 14, 2020.
53 http://www.swfinstitute.org/fund-rankings/.
54 The National (UAE). March 21, 2018.
Congressional Research Service

18

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

Agreement (TIFA), often viewed as a prelude to a free trade agreement (FTA), which Kuwait has
said it seeks. In the course of the September 8, 2017, U.S.-Kuwait Strategic Dialogue, the U.S.
Department of Commerce finalized a memorandum of understanding with Kuwait’s Direct
Investment Promotion Authority to encourage additional investments in both countries. Kuwait
gave $500 million worth of oil to U.S. states affected by Hurricane Katrina. In July 2019, Kuwait
signed a contract with U.S. oil services firm Halliburton, reportedly worth about $600 million, to
explore for oil offshore in Kuwait – a first such deal with a U.S. firm for the Kuwait Petroleum
Corp.
At the same time, a U.S.- Kuwait commercial dispute remains unresolved. About 45 U.S.
hospitals, mainly centered in Massachusetts, claim that the Kuwait government owes them a total
of over $670 million for services they provided to Kuwaitis receiving medical treatment in the
United States. The State Department said in August that it “has raised this issue with the Kuwaiti
government and is working to find a resolution.”55
The United States’ imports of oil from Kuwait have been declining as U.S. oil imports have
declined generally. Total U.S. exports to Kuwait were less than $3 billion in 2018, and imports
were about $2.1 billion. Exports to Kuwait were at about that same level in 2019, but imports
declined to about $1.3 billion, reflecting reduced U.S. oil imports.56 U.S. exports to Kuwait
consist mostly of commercial aircraft, automobiles, industrial equipment, and foodstuffs.

55 “Cash-strapped U.S. hospitals say Kuwait owes them at least $677 million.” Washington Post, August 7, 2020.
56 U.S. Census Bureau. Foreign Trade Statistics. Accessed May 2020.
Congressional Research Service

19

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

Figure 1. Kuwait at a Glance

Population: About 4.6 mil ion, of which 1.4 mil ion are citizens
GDP (purchasing power parity, PPP): $300 bil ion
Religions: Muslim 85% (of which: Sunni 70%, Shia 30%); other (Christian, Hindu, Parsi) 15%
GDP per capita (PPP): $70,000/year
GDP growth rate: 2% (2019), but expected to decline in 2020 due to COVID-19 outbreak
Unemployment: 2%
Inflation: 2.5%
Oil (proven reserves): 102 bil ion barrels, 6% of world proven reserves
Oil production: 2.5 mil ion barrels per day
Oil exports: 2.15 mil ion barrels per day
Sources: Map created by CRS using data from Department of State, Esri, and Google Maps (2013). Fact
information from CIA, The World Factbook, and IMF; various press.

Author Information

Kenneth Katzman

Specialist in Middle Eastern Affairs

Congressional Research Service

20

Kuwait: Governance, Security, and U.S. Policy

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

Congressional Research Service
RS21513 · VERSION 130 · UPDATED
21