H-2A and H-2B Temporary Worker Visas:
Policy and Related Issues
Updated June 9, 2020
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R44849

H-2A and H-2B Temporary Worker Visas: Policy and Related Issues

Summary
Certain foreign workers, sometimes referred to as guest workers, may be admitted to the United
States to perform temporary labor under two temporary worker visas: the H-2A visa for
agricultural workers and the H-2B visa for nonagricultural workers. The H-2A visa is not subject
to any numerical limitations, while the H-2B visa is subject to a statutory annual cap of 66,000.
H-2A and H-2B workers fil jobs that do not require much formal education. H-2A workers
perform seasonal or temporary agricultural labor. They also engage in range herding and livestock
production. H-2B workers perform temporary jobs in a variety of fields including landscaping,
meat and seafood processing, and construction.
The H-2A and H-2B programs are administered by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
and the Department of Labor (DOL). These agencies and the Department of State (DOS) have
made adjustments, and in the case of DHS issued H-2A and H-2B temporary final rules, related to
guest worker visas in response to the coronavirus pandemic.
Statutory and regulatory provisions establish processes for bringing in workers under the H-2A
and H-2B programs that are intended to protect similarly employed U.S. workers. As an initial
step in the process, a prospective H-2A or H-2B employer must apply for DOL labor certification
to ensure that U.S. workers are not available for the jobs in question and that the hiring of foreign
workers wil not adversely affect the wages and working conditions of U.S. workers. After
receiving labor certification, the employer can submit an application, known as a petition, to DHS
to bring in foreign workers. If the petition is approved, a foreign worker who is abroad can then
go to a U.S. embassy or consulate to apply for an H-2A or H-2B nonimmigrant visa from DOS. If
the visa application is approved, the worker is issued a visa that he or she can use to apply for
admission to the United States at a port of entry. The final steps are different if the foreign worker
is already in the United States; in such a case, there is no visa application.
Over the years, a variety of legislative measures have been put forward concerning foreign
temporary agricultural and nonagricultural workers. These have included bil s to establish new
temporary worker visas for agricultural and nonagricultural workers as wel as proposals to
change the existing H-2A and H-2B programs. In recent Congresses, the latter proposals have
been more common. H-2A-related measures have sought to revise H-2A program requirements
on temporary need, wages, U.S. worker recruitment, and housing, among other items. Recent bils
on the H-2B visa have focused largely on the annual cap.
The H-2A and H-2B programs—and guest worker programs broadly—strive both to be
responsive to legitimate employer needs for temporary labor and to provide adequate protections
for U.S. and foreign temporary workers. There is much debate, however, about how to strike the
appropriate balance between these goals. Key policy considerations for Congress include the
labor market test to determine whether U.S. workers are available for the positions; required
wages; and enforcement. The issue of unauthorized workers also arises in connection with guest
worker programs.
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H-2A and H-2B Temporary Worker Visas: Policy and Related Issues

Introduction
The United States has a long history of importing foreign temporary workers who are sometimes
referred to as guest workers. In the past, guest workers were used to address U.S. worker
shortages during times of war. Notably, the controversial Bracero program, which began during
World War II and lasted until 1964, brought several mil ion Mexican agricultural workers into the
United States.
Today, the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA)1 provides for the temporary admission of
agricultural and nonagricultural workers to the United States through the H-2A and H-2B visa
programs, respectively. H-2A and H-2B workers fil jobs that do not require much formal
education. H-2A workers perform seasonal or temporary agricultural labor. They also engage in
range herding and livestock production. H-2B workers perform temporary jobs in a variety of
fields including landscaping, meat and seafood processing, and construction. The H-2A and H-2B
programs, which are subject to detailed recruitment and other requirements, seek to meet the
legitimate temporary labor needs of employers while providing protections to U.S. and foreign
workers.
The difficulty in balancing the needs of employers and workers in guest worker programs is
reflected in ongoing debates about such programs. Some view guest worker programs as helpful
to businesses with seasonal needs and “to our long-term economic health” and cal for their
expansion and simplification.2 Others see these programs as leaving many participating workers
“vulnerable to abuse and retaliation at the hands of employers and their agents.” 3
In response to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), the Department of State (DOS)
suspended routine visa services at al U.S. embassies and consulates as of March 20, 2020.4 On
March 23, 2020, the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) announced that it had reached
agreement with Mexico and Canada to “limit al non-essential travel across borders” in an effort
to slow further spread of coronavirus.5 Among the immigration-related issues raised by these
actions was the possible impact on the admission to the United States of H-2A temporary
agricultural workers and H-2B temporary nonagricultural workers (sometimes referred to
collectively as H-2 workers).
In an announcement on March 26, 2020, DOS stated that “the H-2 program is essential to the
economy and food security of the United States and is a national security priority” and that the
department “intend[s] to continue processing H-2 cases as much as possible, as permitted by post
resources and local government restrictions.” It further explained that DOS Secretary Mike
Pompeo, in consultation with DHS, had “authorized consular officers to expand the categories of

1 Act of June 27, 1952, ch. 477, codified, as amended, at 8 U.S.C. §1101 et seq. T he INA is t he basis of current
immigration law.
2 See, for example, Isai Chavez, “Guest Worker Programs: What Needs Fixing and Why,” E21/Manhattan Institute for
Policy Research, February 26, 2018, https://economics21.org/html/guest-worker-programs-what -needs-fixing-and-
why-2915.html.
3 See Daniel Costa, “Modern-day Braceros,” Working Economics Blog, Economic Policy Institute, March 31, 2017,
https://www.epi.org/blog/modern-day-braceros-the-united-states-has-450000-guestworkers-in-low-wage-jobs/.
4 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs, “Suspension of Routine Visa Ser vices,” March 20, 2020,
https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/News/visas-news/suspension-of-routine-visa-services.html.
5 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “Fact Sheet: DHS Measures on the Border to Limit the Further Spread of
Coronavirus,” March 23, 2020, https://www.dhs.gov/news/2020/03/23/fact-sheet-dhs-measures-border-limit-further-
spread-coronavirus.
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H-2 visa applicants whose applications can be adjudicated without an in-person interview.”
According to the DOS announcement, “We anticipate the vast majority of otherwise qualified H-2
applicants wil now be adjudicated without an interview.”6
For its part, DHS issued temporary final rules in April 2020 and May 2020 to facilitate the
continued employment of H-2A temporary agricultural workers and H-2B temporary
nonagricultural workers, respectively, during the COVID-19 national emergency. According to
the supplementary information to the H-2A rule, “DHS is taking steps to ensure that the
agricultural sector has greater certainty and flexibility to minimize gaps in their H-2A workflow”
in view of COVID-19-related travel restrictions, visa processing limitations, and possible H-2A
worker unavailability due to il ness.7 The supplementary information to the H-2B rule similarly
states that “DHS is taking steps to ensure that employers who have needs for temporary
nonagricultural workers who provide stability to the nation’s food supply chain have greater
certainty and flexibility to minimize gaps in the flow of H-2B workers.”8
This report covers the H-2A temporary agricultural worker program and the H-2B temporary
nonagricultural worker program. It explores the statutory and regulatory provisions that govern
each program, focusing in particular on the much-debated labor certification process. It also
describes 2020 program changes in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. It discusses past and
present legislative efforts to reform the H-2A and H-2B programs and to create new guest worker
visas, and identifies and analyzes key policy considerations to help inform future congressional
action.
Overview of H-2A and H-2B Visas
The INA enumerates categories of aliens,9 known as nonimmigrants, who are admitted to the
United States for a temporary period of time and specific purpose. Nonimmigrant visa categories
are identified by letters and numbers, based on the sections of the INA that authorize them.
Among the major nonimmigrant visa categories is the “H” category for temporary workers. It
includes H-2A and H-2B visas for guest workers,10 as wel as visas for specialty occupation
workers.11
The INA, as original y enacted in 1952, authorized an H-2 nonimmigrant visa category for
foreign agricultural and nonagricultural workers who were coming temporarily to the United
States to perform temporary services (other than those of an exceptional nature requiring
distinguished merit and ability) or labor. The 1986 Immigration Reform and Control Act
(IRCA)12 amended the INA to subdivide the H-2 program into the current H-2A agricultural

6 U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs, “Important Announcement on H2 Visas,” March 26, 2020,
https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/News/visas-news/important -announcement-on-h2-visas.html (hereinafter cited
as “ DOS, “ Important Announcement on H2 Visas””).
7 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “T emporary Changes to Requirements Affecting H–2A Nonimmigrants Due
to the COVID–19 National Emergency,” 85 Federal Register 21739, 21741-21742, April 20, 2020 (hereinafter cited as
“2020 DHS H-2A temporary rule”).
8 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “T emporary Changes to Requirements Affecting H–2B Nonimmigrants Due
to the COVID–19 National Emergency,” 85 Federal Register 28843, 28846, May 14, 2020 (hereinafter cited as “ 2020
DHS H-2B temporary rule”).
9 An alien is defined in the INA as a person who is not a citizen or national of the United States. INA §101(a)(3); 8
U.S.C. §1101(a)(3).
10 INA §§101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(a), (b); 8 U.S.C. §§1101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(a), (b).
11 See CRS Report R45040, Immigration: Nonimmigrant (Temporary) Admissions to the United States.
12 P.L. 99-603, November 6, 1986.
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worker program and H-2B nonagricultural worker program and to detail the admissions process
for H-2A workers. The H-2A and H-2B programs are administered by DHS’s U.S. Citizenship
and Immigration Services (USCIS) and the Employment and Training Administration (ETA) of
the Department of Labor (DOL).
While there are many differences between the H-2A and H-2B programs, the process of bringing
in workers under either one entails the same basic steps (see Figure 1). Employers who want to
hire workers through either program must first apply to DOL for labor certification. After
receiving labor certification, a prospective H-2A or H-2B employer can submit an application,
known as a petition, to DHS to bring in foreign workers.
Figure 1. Bringing in H-2A and H-2B Workers

Source: CRS presentation of information from U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and
Immigration Services.
If the petition is approved, foreign workers who are abroad can then go to a U.S. embassy or
consulate to apply for an H-2A or H-2B nonimmigrant visa from DOS. As part of the visa
process, most applicants must be interviewed, unless the interview requirement is waived.13 The
INA authorizes consular officers to waive nonimmigrant visa interviews in certain cases.14 It also
authorizes the Secretary of State to waive visa interviews upon a determination that such a waiver
is “in the national interest of the United States” or is “necessary as a result of unusual or emergent
circumstances.”15 If the visa application is approved, the worker is issued a visa that he or she can

13 T he interview requirements and waiver provisions are enumerated in INA §222(h) (8 U.S.C. §1202(h)). T hese
provisions require interviews for nonimmigrant visa applicants between the ages of 14 and 79, but allow for waivers in
certain circumstances.
14 T hese include cases in which the consular officer has no indication that the applicant has not complied with U.S.
immigration law and regulations, the individual was previously issued a visa of the same type, the individual is
applying no more than 12 months after the expiration of the prior visa, and the individual is applying from within his or
her country of usual residence unless otherwise prescribed in regulations. INA §222(h)(1)(B); 8 U.S.C. §1202(h)(1)(B).
In a March 2020 notice to H-2 petitioners, DOS indicated that it would continue to process H-2 cases but needed to
modify procedures in light of “the social distancing recommended by health authorities” in response to COVID -19.
DOS stated that it would give processing priority to “returning H-2 workers who are eligible for an interview waiver.”
It described returning H-2 workers as “ applicants whose H-2A or H-2B visas have expired in the last twelve months
and are now applying for the same visa classification and did not require a waiver the last time they applied for a visa.”
An excerpt from one of these letters is available in Ross Courtney, “Coronavirus slows H-2A visas,” Good Fruit
Grower, March 17, 2020.
15 INA §222(h)(1)(C); 8 U.S.C. §1202(h)(1)(C). DOS’s March 26, 2020, H-2 announcement authorized consular
officers “ if they so choose” to consider as returning workers for purp oses of a visa interview waiver H-2 applicants
whose prior visas expired in the last 48 months (rather than the normal 12 months) provided that the applicants are
applying for the same visa classification and did not require a waiver of ineligibility the last time. See U.S. Department
of State, “Important Announcement on H2 Visas.” Also see, U.S. Department of State, U.S. Embassy and Consulates in
Mexico, “Notice to H2 Agents and Petitioners,” March 26, 2020, https://mx.usembassy.gov/notice-to-h2-agents-and-
petitioners-march-26-2020/.
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use to apply for admission to the United States at a port of entry. If admitted, the H-2A or H-2B
worker can commence employment on the work start date.
The last part of the process is different if the foreign worker who the prospective H-2A or H-2B
employer wants to employ is already in the United States. (There is no visa application step if the
beneficiary of the petition is in the United States.) In such a case, the employer requests as part of
the petition that the worker be granted an extension of stay (if the worker holds the relevant H-2A
or H-2B status) or a change of status/extension of stay (if the worker is in another nonimmigrant
status). If the petition is approved, the H-2A or H-2B worker can commence employment on the
work start date. DHS temporary final rules, issued in spring 2020 in response to the COVID-19
emergency, enable H-2A workers and H-2B workers to commence employment before petition
approval.
Temporary Labor Certification
DOL’s ETA administers the labor certification process under the H-2A and H-2B programs.
Under both programs, employers submit applications to DOL in which they request certification
for a particular number of positions. (See Appendix A for labor certification data for the top
states.)
INA provisions on the admission of H-2A workers state that an H-2A petition cannot be approved
unless the petitioner has applied to DOL for certification that
(1) there are not sufficient workers who are able, willing, and qualified, and who will be
available at the time and at place needed, to perform the labor or services involved in the
petition, and
(2) the employment of the alien in such labor or services will not adversely affect the wages
and working conditions of workers in the United States similarly employed.16
There is no equivalent labor certification requirement in statute for the H-2B visa. The INA,
however, does contain some related language. For example, it defines an H-2B alien, in relevant
part, as an alien “who is coming temporarily to the United States to perform other temporary
service or labor if unemployed persons capable of performing such service or labor cannot be
found in this country.”17 The H-2B labor certification requirement instead appears in DHS
regulations, which state:
The petitioner may not file an H-2B petition unless the United States petitioner has applied
for a labor certification with the Secretary of Labor ... and has obtained a favorable labor
certification determination.18
The H-2A and H-2B labor certification requirements are intended to provide job, wage, and
working conditions protections to U.S. workers. They are implemented in both programs through
a multifaceted labor certification process that requires prospective H-2A and H-2B employers to
conduct recruitment for U.S. workers and offer minimum levels of wages and benefits that vary
by program.

16 INA §218(a)(1)(A), (B); 8 U.S.C. §1188(a)(1)(A), (B).
17 INA §101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(b); 8 U.S.C. §1101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(b).
18 8 C.F.R. §214.2(h)(6)(iii)(C).
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H-2A Agricultural Worker Visa
The H-2A visa al ows for the temporary admission of foreign workers to the United States to
perform agricultural labor or services of a seasonal or temporary nature. It is governed by
provisions in the INA and regulations issued by DHS and DOL. H-2A workers may perform
agricultural work, as defined by DOL in regulations and including “agricultural labor” and
“agriculture” as these terms are defined in specified laws.19 H-2A workers may also perform other
specified agricultural activities, including the pressing of apples for cider.20
Visa Issuances
The H-2A visa program is not subject to a statutory numerical limit and has grown significantly
over the last 25 years. One way to measure the H-2A program’s growth is to consider changes in
the number of H-2A visas issued annual y by DOS. The visa application and issuance process
occurs after DOL has granted labor certification and DHS has approved the visa petition (see
Figure 1). As il ustrated in Figure 2, the number of H-2A visas issued has increased relatively
sharply in recent years, with visa issuances more than tripling from FY2011 to FY2019. In
FY2019, H-2A visa issuances exceeded 200,000 for the first time in the program’s history.21
Annual visa issuances provide an approximation of the number of aliens with H-2A status that
enter the United States in a given year. However, they are not a precise measure. Among the
reasons for this are that not al aliens who are issued H-2A visas necessarily use them to enter the
United States, and an alien with an H-2A visa may be denied admission at a U.S. port of entry.
Figure 2. H-2A Visas Issued, FY1992-FY2019

Source: CRS presentation of data from U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs.
Notes: See Appendix C for underlying data.

19 T he laws are enumerated in the INA definition of an H-2A worker, INA §§101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(a) (8 U.S.C.
§1101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(a)).
20 T he pressing of apples was added to the INA definition of an H-2A worker by the FY2006 Department of Homeland
Security Appropriations Act (P.L. 109-90, §536).
21 See Appendix C for annual H-2A visa issuance data.
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With the recent growth in H-2A visa issuances, questions have arisen about the size of the H-2A
visa program relative to the larger agricultural workforce in the United States. Estimates vary
depending on how the agricultural workforce is defined and the factors that are taken into account
in making the comparison. Based on DOS visa issuance data and DOL data, a 2020 Economic
Policy Institute piece by Daniel Costa and Philip Martin estimated that “H-2A workers fil ed 10%
of the roughly one mil ion full-time-equivalent jobs in U.S. crop agriculture” in FY2019.22 An
earlier analysis by Martin found that H-2A workers accounted for “approximately 8 percent of
average annual employment on U.S. crop farms” in FY2014.23 One basic limitation of using
annual visa issuance data as a measure of the H-2A workforce is that these data exclude some H-
2A workers, such as those who enter the United States on a visa in one fiscal year and then extend
their stay into the next fiscal year to perform new employment; such workers would not be
included in visa issuance data for the second year.
H-2A Statutory Provisions
The H-2A visa is subject to a set of conditions and rules described in INA §218.24 As il ustrated in
Figure 1, prospective H-2A employers must first apply to DOL for labor certification. To approve
a labor certification application, DOL must determine that qualified U.S. workers are not
available to fil the job openings and that the employment of foreign workers wil not adversely
affect similarly employed U.S. workers (e.g., by lowering wages).
U.S. worker recruitment is a key component of the H-2A labor certification process. As required
by the INA, the prospective H-2A employer’s job offer is circulated through an interstate
employment system to recruit qualified U.S. workers. The employer also may be required to
engage in additional recruitment in a “multi-state region of traditional or expected labor
supply.”25 INA provisions on the H-2A visa include a fifty percent rule, under which employers
are required to hire any qualified U.S. worker who applies for a position during the first half of
the work contract under which the H-2A workers who are in the job are employed.26
Under the INA provisions, DOL cannot require a prospective H-2A employer to submit a labor
certification application more than 45 days before the employer’s date of need for workers. And if
the employer has complied with the recruitment and other certification requirements and eligible
U.S. workers have not been found to fil the job openings, DOL must issue a labor certification no
later than 30 days before the employer’s date of need.27 Among the other statutory labor

22 Daniel Costa and Philip Martin, Coronavirus and farmworkers: Farm employment, safety issues, and the H-2A
guestworker program , Economic Policy Institute, March 24, 2020, https://www.epi.org/publication/coronavirus-and-
farmworkers-h-2a/. According to its website, the Economic Policy Institute seeks “ to include the needs of low- and
middle-income workers in economic policy discussions.”
23 Philip Martin, Immigration and Farm Labor; From Unauthorized to H-2A for Some? Migration Policy Institute,
August 2017, pp. 8, 15 (footnote 29). Martin’s estimates are based on an analysis of DOL Bureau of Labor Statistics
data. Another available source of agricultural workforce data is the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National
Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), which reports on the average annual number of hired farm workers in the
United States (excluding Alaska). T hese data are limited for H-2A comparison purposes in that they exclude
agricultural service workers, who work on a contract or “fee for service” basis. According to NASS data, the average
annual number of hired farm workers in the United States in 2019 was 702,300. U.S. Department of Agriculture,
National Agricultural Statistics Service, Farm Labor, November 21, 2019.
24 8 U.S.C. §1188.
25 INA §218(b)(4); 8 U.S.C. §1188(b)(4).
26 T his rule was originally made effective by law for three years beginning in 1987 but remains in place by regulation.
27 DOL publishes a quarterly report on the H-2A program that includes statistics on application processing. According
to the report for the fourth quarter of FY2019 (H-2A Tem porary Agricultural Labor Certification Program - Selected
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certification requirements, employers must provide workers with housing in accordance with
regulations.
The INA permits the filing of H-2A labor certification applications and petitions by agricultural
associations.28 In addition, it authorizes DOL to take actions, such as imposing penalties, to
ensure employer compliance with the terms and conditions of H-2A employment.
Separate from the INA, H-2A workers are statutorily eligible for legal assistance by a Legal
Services Corporation-funded program on matters arising under workers’ specific employment
contracts relating to wages, housing, transportation, and other employment rights.29
H-2A Regulations
Regulations issued by DHS and DOL implement the INA provisions on the H-2A visa (see
Appendix D for additional information on selected H-2A regulations).
DHS Regulations on the H-2A Visa
DHS regulations govern the admission of H-2A workers to the United States.30 The current DHS
rule on the H-2A visa describes its purpose as being “to provide agricultural employers with an
orderly and timely flow of legal workers, thereby decreasing their reliance on unauthorized
workers, while protecting the rights of laborers.”31
Under DHS regulations, petitioning H-2A employers must establish that the employment for
which they are seeking workers is of a temporary or seasonal nature. In general, the regulations
consider work to be of a temporary nature when the employer’s need for the worker wil last no
longer than one year.
DHS regulations limit participation in the H-2A program to nationals of countries designated
annual y by DHS, with the concurrence of DOS.32 The regulations also prohibit payments by

Statistics, FY 2019), which includes FY2019 full-year data, DOL processed 86.1% of H-2A applications that were
complete in a timely fashion (that is, it issued a final determination 30 days before the work start date) in FY2019. T he
quarterly reports are available on ET A’s Office of Foreign Labor Certification (OFLC) Performance Data page.
27 8 U.S.C. §1188.
27 INA §218(b)(4); 8 U.S.C. §1188(b)(4).
27 T his rule was originally made effective by law for three years beginning in 1987 but remains in place by regulation.
27 DOL publishes a quarterly report on the H-2A program that includes statistics on application processing. According
to the report for the fourth quarter of FY2019 (H-2A Tem porary Agricultural Labor Certification Program - Selected
Statistics, FY 2019), which includes FY2019 full-year data, DOL processed 86.1% of H-2A applications that were
complete in a timely fashion (that is, it issued a final determination 30 days before the work start date) in FY2019. See
“Selected Statistics by Program,” https://foreignlaborcert.doleta.gov/performancedata.cfm#stat.
28 For purposes of the H-2A program, an agricultural association is a nonprofit or cooperative association of farmers,
growers, or ranchers that performs certain functions, such as recruiting or transporting workers.
29 45 CFR §1626.11. T he underlying statutory provision is P.L. 99-603, §305.
30 8 C.F.R. §214.2(h)(5).
31 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “Changes to Requirements Affecting H-2A Nonimmigrants,” 73 Federal
Register 76891, December 18, 2008 (hereinafter cited as “ 2008 DHS H-2A rule”).
32 DHS published a notice, effective on January 19, 2019, for one year, that identified 84 countries whose nationals are
eligible to participate in the H-2A program. See U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “ Identification of Foreign
Countries Whose Nationals Are Eligible to Participate in the H–2A and H–2B Nonimmigrant Worker Programs,” 84
Federal Register 133, January 18, 2019. T he notice discusses the factors considered in designating e ligible countries.
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prospective H-2A workers to employers, recruiters, or other employment service providers where
the payments are a condition of obtaining H-2A employment.
DHS regulations also address an H-2A worker’s authorized period of stay. They specify that an
H-2A worker can be admitted to the United States up to one week before the start of the approved
H-2A petition period in order to travel to the work site and may remain in the country for 30 days
after the petition expires in order to prepare to depart or to seek an extension of stay based on a
subsequent job offer.33 An employer can apply to extend an H-2A worker’s stay in increments of
up to one year, but an alien’s total period of stay as an H-2A worker may not exceed three
consecutive years. An alien who has spent three years in the United States in H-2A status may not
seek an extension of his or her stay or be readmitted to the United States as an H-2A worker until
he or she has been outside the country for three months.
In response to the COVID-19 emergency, DHS issued a final rule on April 20, 2020, making
temporary changes to some of its H-2A regulatory requirements that wil be in effect until August
18, 2020.34 The rule enables H-2A workers in the United States who seek to undertake new H-2A
employment to begin that work after the employer files a petition, accompanied by a valid labor
certification, requesting an extension of stay for the worker (but before the petition is approved).
In general, absent this change, the worker could not start the new employment until DHS
approved the petition.35 Under the rule, the H-2A worker would be authorized to start the new
employment on the work start date in the filed petition or the acknowledged petition receipt date,
whichever is later, and work for up to 45 days while the petition remains pending.36
As noted, an H-2A worker is limited to a three-year maximum period of stay. The rule creates a
temporary exception to this limitation. Under the rule, an H-2A petition seeking an extension of
stay, accompanied by a valid labor certification, may be approved even if any of the workers
requested in the petition either have already been in the United States for three years or would
exceed the three-year limit if the extension were approved.
The rule, however, does not modify or waive related DOL regulations. As stated in the
supplementary information to the rule, “This final rule proposes no changes to DOL’s regulations
or to the TLC [temporary labor certification] process, which the employer must undergo to recruit
U.S. workers prior to the filing of an H-2A petition with USCIS.”37

33 In March 2020, in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and DOL
announced a partnership to identify workers whose work periods are ending and who may be available to fill positions
with U.S. agricultural employers. According to the announcement, “USDA and DOL have identified nearly 20,000 H-
2A and H-2B certified positions that have expiring contracts in the coming weeks. T here will be workers leaving these
positions who could be available to transfer to a different employer’s labor certification.” U.S. Department of
Agriculture, “USDA and DOL Announce Information Sharing to Assist H-2A Employers,” March 19, 2020,
https://www.usda.gov/media/press-releases/2020/03/19/usda-and-dol-announce-information-sharing-assist-h-2a-
employers.
34 2020 DHS H-2A temporary rule.
35 8 C.F.R. 214.2(h)(2)(i)(D).
36 T here is a similar permanent regulatory provision that predates the temporary final rule that allows an H-2A worker
to begin work with a new petitioning employer before the petition is approved if the employer participates in the E -
Verify employment eligibility verification system. 8 C.F.R. §274a.12(b)(21). See 2020 DHS H-2A temporary rule, p.
21742. For information on E-Verify, see CRS Report R40446, Electronic Em ploym ent Eligibility Verification.
37 2020 DHS temporary H-2A rule, p. 21742.
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DOL Regulations on H-2A Employment
DOL regulations on the H-2A visa include ETA regulations concerning H-2A labor certification.38
ETA regulations implement the requirement that before an employer can petition for H-2A
workers, the employer must apply for certification that U.S. workers are not available to fil the
positions and that the employment of foreign workers will not adversely affect the wages or
working conditions of U.S. workers.
ETA regulations detail the process for prospective H-2A employers to recruit U.S. workers. The
employer must submit a job order containing the terms and conditions of employment to the
DOL-funded state workforce agency (SWA)39 serving the area of intended employment before the
employer can submit a labor certification application. The job order becomes the basis for
recruiting U.S. workers to fil the employer’s openings through an intrastate clearance system.
Once the employer submits the labor certification application and job order to ETA and ETA
determines that they are complete and comply with applicable requirements, the agency
authorizes access to the interstate clearance system and posts the job order on its electronic job
registry.40 ETA also wil direct the employer to conduct recruitment by other means, including by
contacting former U.S. workers.
H-2A employers must offer and provide required wages and benefits to H-2A workers and
workers in corresponding employment. Corresponding employment for purposes of the H-2A
program is the employment of non-H-2A workers by an employer who has an approved H-2A
labor certification in any work included in the job order or in any agricultural work performed by
the H-2A workers. H-2A employers are required to pay workers the highest of several wage rates
(see “Wages” below). Employers must provide a three-fourths guarantee; that is, they must
guarantee to offer workers employment for at least three-fourths of the contract period. They must
also provide workers with housing, transportation,41 and other benefits, including workers’
compensation insurance.42
ETA regulations address circumstances in which, due to natural or manmade catastrophic events
beyond the employer’s control, an H-2A employer no longer needs the services of a worker. In
such a case, the employer may terminate the work contract with DOL approval. However, the
employer remains obligated to meet certain responsibilities to the worker.43

38 20 C.F.R. Part 655, Subpart B.
39 A state workforce agency is a state government agency that receives funds pursuant to the Wagner -Peyser Act (29
U.S.C. §49 et seq.) to administer the state’s public labor exchange activities.
40 T he registry is available at https://seasonaljobs.dol.gov/jobs.
41 T he transportation requirement covers the H-2A worker’s transportation to and from the place of employment at the
beginning and end of the work contract period, respectively, and transportation between the worker’s living quarters
and the worksite.
42 H-2A workers, like nonimmigrants generally, are not eligible for federally funded public assistance, with the
exception of certain emergency services. See CRS Report RL33809, Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public
Assistance: Policy Overview. However, nonimmigrants are generally subject to the provisions of the Affordable Care
Act (P.L. 111-148), as amended. See archived CRS Report R43561, Treatm ent of Noncitizens Under the Affordable
Care Act.
43 T hese responsibilities include fulfilling a three-fourths guarantee for the period between the contract start date and
the termination date. 20 C.F.R. §655.122(o). In a March 2020 FAQ, DOL addressed the application of these DOL H -
2A “contract impossibility” regulations and similar DOL H-2B regulations during the COVID-19 pandemic:
“Employers who received temporary labor certification under the H-2A, H-2B, or CW-1 visa programs may request
approval from the … [ET A’s Office of Foreign Labor Certification] t o terminate work under the job order and/or work
contracts before the end date of work due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.” U.S. Department of Labor,
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ETA, which is responsible for enforcing H-2A employer compliance with obligations related to
the labor certification process, may conduct audits of approved labor certification applications.
Under certain circumstances, it may revoke an approved certification or debar an employer from
receiving future certifications.
DOL regulations on the H-2A visa also include regulations by the Wage and Hour Division
(WHD) concerning enforcement of contractual obligations under the H-2A program.44 WHD is
responsible for enforcing H-2A employer compliance with obligations to H-2A workers and
workers in corresponding employment, such as the requirement to offer employment to U.S.
workers. The agency is responsible for carrying out investigations, inspections, and law
enforcement functions and in appropriate instances, imposing penalties or taking other actions,
including debarment.
Range Herding and Livestock Regulations
ETA issued regulations in 2015 on range herding and livestock production that established special
standards and procedures for employers applying for labor certification to hire H-2A workers to
perform this type of work. These standards and procedures encompass various aspects of the
labor certification process, including job order and labor certification application filing, U.S.
worker recruitment, wage requirements, and housing standards.45
H-2B Nonagricultural Worker Visa
The H-2B visa provides for the temporary admission of foreign workers to the United States to
perform temporary nonagricultural service or labor, if unemployed U.S. workers cannot be found.
Foreign medical graduates coming to perform medical services are explicitly excluded.
H-2B workers are not limited to a particular set of occupations. Over the years, the H-2B visa has
been used to bring in workers to perform a variety of jobs. According to DOL labor certification
data, the top H-2B occupation in recent years in terms of the number of positions certified has
been landscaping and groundskeeping worker. Other top occupations include forest and
conservation worker, maid and housekeeping cleaner, amusement and recreation attendant, and
meat, poultry, and fish cutter and trimmer (see Appendix B for data on H-2B labor certifications
by occupation).
Visa Issuances
Figure 3 shows H-2B visa issuance data for FY1992 through FY2019.46 Unlike the uncapped H-
2A visa, the H-2B visa is subject to a statutory annual numerical limit of 66,000. For several years

Employment and T raining Administration, Office of Foreign Labor Certification, “COVID-19, Frequently Asked
Questions, Round 1,” March 20, 2020, p. 7, https://www.foreignlaborcert.doleta.gov/pdf/DOL-OFLC_COVID-
19_FAQs_Round%201_03.20.2020.pdf.
44 29 C.F.R. Part 501.
45 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration, “Temporary Agricultural Employment of H –
2A Foreign Workers in the Herding or Production of Livestock on the Range in the United States,” 80 Federal Register
62958, October 16, 2015 (hereinafter cited as “ DOL H-2A herding rule”). Also see U.S. Department of Labor,
Employer and T raining Administration, Office of Foreign Labor Certification, “2015 Final Rule, Range Herding or
Production of Livestock in the United States,” factsheet, https://www.foreignlaborcert.doleta.gov/herd_pdf/
herder_factsheet.pdf.
46 T here is no precise measure available of the number of aliens with H-2B status that enter the United States in any
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H-2A and H-2B Temporary Worker Visas: Policy and Related Issues

(FY2005-FY2007, FY2016), a provision was in effect that exempted certain returning H-2B
workers from being counted against the statutory cap. H-2B visa issuances peaked in FY2007,
totaling almost twice the cap. The number of H-2B visas issued reached a recent low point in
FY2009 during the Great Recession. FY2009 was the first year since FY2002 that H-2B visa
issuances fel below the 66,000 cap. As shown in Figure 3, H-2B visa issuances have followed a
general y upward trend since then. For each year from FY2017 to FY2020, Congress has
authorized DHS to make additional H-2B visas available (beyond the cap) subject to certain
constraints. (For further information about the special H-2B cap provisions, see “Enacted
Provisions” below.)
As il ustrated in Figure 3, there are several years that H-2B visa issuances exceeded the 66,000
cap when no special H-2B cap provisions were in effect. It is not necessarily clear in such cases
whether the H-2B cap was technical y exceeded (and if so, by how much) in light of the cap
implementation process and other factors (see “Numerical Limits” below).
Figure 3. H-2B Visas Issued, FY1992-FY2019

Source: CRS presentation of data from U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs.
Notes: See Appendix C for underlying data. Special cap-related provisions were in effect for FY2005-FY2007
and FY2016-FY2019.
H-2B Statutory Provisions
The INA does not include a section detailing the conditions and rules applicable to the admission
of H-2B workers as it does for H-2A workers. It does, however, place some specific requirements
on H-2B employers. It requires an employer who dismisses an H-2B worker before the end of his
or her period of authorized admission to pay for the worker’s return transportation abroad.47 It
also directs DHS to impose a fraud prevention and detection fee on H-2B employers.48 The INA

given year. Visa data provide an approximation but are subject to limitations, including that not all aliens who are
issued visas necessarily use them to enter the United States.
47 INA §214(c)(5); 8 U.S.C. §1184(c)(5).
48 INA §214(c)(13); 8 U.S.C. §1184(c)(13). H-2B fraud prevention and detection fees are deposited into the Fraud
Prevention and Detection Account, which was established in the general fund of the T reasury by INA §286(v) (8
U.S.C. §1356(v)). T his account supports activities related to preventing and detecting fraud in the delivery of
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further authorizes DHS to enforce the conditions of an H-2B petition and al ows DHS to delegate
this authority to DOL, by agreement.49 (DHS transferred this enforcement authority to DOL,
effective January 18, 2009.50)
The INA also imposes the aforementioned statutory numerical limit on the H-2B visa, specifying
that the total number of aliens who may be issued H-2B visas or otherwise provided H-2B status
during a fiscal year may not exceed 66,000. It further specifies that no more than half this total
(33,000) may be al ocated during the first half of a fiscal year.51 A statutory provision separate
from the INA establishes an H-2B cap-related exception. Enacted as part of the FY2005
Department of Defense Appropriations Act, this provision makes the cap inapplicable to an H-2B
worker employed “as a fish roe processor, a fish roe technician, or a supervisor of fish roe
processing.”52
Temporary H-2B cap-related and other provisions have also been regularly enacted in recent
years. For FY2020, language in an omnibus appropriations act provides for the issuance of H-2B
visas beyond the statutory cap under certain conditions (see “Enacted Provisions”). DOL
appropriations provisions address various DOL H-2B regulations. For FY2020, these provisions
define temporary need and the prevailing wage for H-2B purposes, prohibit the use of funds to
enact certain regulatory provisions, and al ow for the staggered entry of certain H-2B workers
(see “DHS/DOL Regulations on H-2B Employment”).
In addition, an FY2008 omnibus appropriations act makes H-2B forestry workers eligible, on a
permanent basis, for the same Legal Services Corporation-funded legal assistance available to H-
2A workers. This legal assistance may be provided to H-2B forestry workers on matters relating
to wages, housing, transportation, and other employment rights arising under workers’ specific
employment contracts.53
H-2B Regulations
Regulations issued by DHS and DOL implement the INA provisions on the H-2B visa (see
Appendix D for additional information on selected H-2B regulations).
DHS Regulations on the H-2B Visa
DHS regulations govern the admission of H-2B workers to the United States.54 Under DHS
regulations, an H-2B worker can be admitted to the United States up to 10 days before the
validity period of the H-2B petition and may remain in the country for 10 days after the petition
expires. An employer can apply to extend an H-2B worker’s stay in increments of up to one year,

immigration benefits.
49 INA §214(c)(14)(A), (B); 8 U.S.C. §1184(c)(14)(A), (B).
50 See U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “Labor
Certification Process and Enforcement for T emporary Employment in Occupations Other Than Agriculture or
Registered Nursing in the United States (H-2B Workers), and Other T echnical Changes,” 73 Federal Register 78020,
78046, December 19, 2008 (hereinafter cited as “ 2008 DOL H-2B rule”); U.S. Department of Homeland Security and
U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division , “ T emporary Non-
Agricultural Employment of H–2B Aliens in the United States,” 80 Federal Register 24041, 24131, April 29, 2015
(hereinafter cited as “2015 DHS/DOL interim final H-2B rule”).
51 INA §§214(g)(1)(B), (g)(10); 8 U.S.C. §§1184(g)(1)((B), (g)(10).
52 P.L. 108-287, §14006.
53 P.L. 110-161, Division B, T itle V, §540; 45 C.F.R. §1626.11.
54 8 C.F.R. §214.2(h)(6).
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but an alien’s total period of stay as an H-2B worker may not exceed three consecutive years.55
An H-2B alien who has spent three years in the United States may not seek an extension of stay
or be readmitted to the United States as an H-2B worker until he or she has been outside the
country for three months.
DHS regulations define temporary work for purposes of the H-2B visa. For work to qualify as
temporary, the employer must establish that his or her need for the worker wil end in the “near,
definable future.” Additional y, the employer’s need for the duties to be performed by the worker
must be a one-time occurrence, a seasonal need, a peakload need, or an intermittent need.56 The
employer’s need must general y be for a period of one year or less, but, in the case of a one-time
occurrence, could last up to three years.
DHS’s H-2B regulations limit participation in the H-2B program to nationals of countries
designated annual y by DHS, with the concurrence of DOS.57 These regulations also prohibit
payments by prospective H-2B workers to employers, recruiters, or other employment service
providers where the payments are a condition of obtaining H-2B employment.
As noted above in the discussion of the H-2B statutory provisions, DHS has transferred H-2B
enforcement authority to DOL. In accordance with this transfer, DHS regulations provide that:
The Secretary of Labor may investigate employers to enforce compliance with the
conditions of a petition and Department of Labor-approved temporary labor certification
to admit or otherwise provide status to an H-2B worker.58
On May 14, 2020, DHS issued a final rule making temporary changes to some of its H-2B
regulatory requirements in response to the COVID-19 emergency. This rule mirrors the H-2A rule
issued in April 2020 and similarly provides a 120-day filing period for requesting its flexibilities.
The rule does not apply to H-2B workers general y. Instead, it is limited to workers who perform
temporary labor “essential to the U.S. food supply chain.”59
The rule enables H-2B workers in the United States who seek to undertake new H-2B
employment to begin that work after the employer files a petition requesting an extension of stay
for the worker (but before the petition is approved). The petition must be accompanied by a valid
labor certification and an attestation that the worker wil be performing work essential to the U.S.
food supply chain. In general, absent this change the worker could not start the new employment
until DHS approved the petition.60 Under the rule, the H-2B worker would be authorized to start
the new employment on the work start date in the filed petition or the USCIS-acknowledged

55 Included in this three-year period is any time an H-2B alien spent in the United States under the “H” (temporary
worker) or “L” (temporary intracompany transferee) visa categories.
56 For definitions of these types of need, see 8 C.F.R. §214.2(h)(6)(ii)(B).
57 DHS published a notice, effective on January 19, 2019, for one year, that identified 81 countries whose nationals are
eligible to participate in the H-2B program. See U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “ Identification of Foreign
Countries Whose Nationals Are Eligible to Participate in the H–2A and H–2B Nonimmigrant Worker Programs,” 84
Federal Register 133, January 18, 2019. T he notice discusses the factors considered in designating eligible countries.
58 8 C.F.R. §214.2(h)(6)(ix).
59 According to the supplementary information to the rule, this work includes, but is not limited to, “work related to the
processing, manufacturing, and packaging of human and animal food; transporting human and animal food from farms,
or manufacturing or processing plants, to distributors and end sellers; and the selling of huma n and animal food through
a variety of sellers or retail establishments, including restaurants.” 2020 DHS H-2B temporary rule, p. 28846.
60 8 C.F.R. 214.2(h)(2)(i)(D).
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petition receipt date, whichever is later, and work for up to 60 days while the petition remains
pending.61
As noted, an H-2B worker is limited to a three-year maximum period of stay. The rule creates a
temporary exception to this limitation. Under the rule, an H-2B petition seeking an extension of
stay for H-2B workers who are essential to the U.S. food supply chain, which is accompanied by
a valid labor certification, may be approved even if any of the workers requested in the petition
either have already been in the United States for three years or would exceed the three-year limit
if the extension were approved.
The rule, however, does not modify or waive related DOL regulations. As explained in the
supplementary information to the rule, “[T]his temporary final rule does not change applicable
regulations pursuant to which employers in the United States must recruit U.S. workers before
filing an H–2B petition with USCIS.”62 In addition, the supplementary information states that
“DHS is not changing any other H–2B petition requirements or the adjudication process,
including the requirement that the H–2B position qualify as temporary services or labor.”63
DHS/DOL Regulations on H-2B Employment
The 2015 interim final rule on H-2B employment, which includes regulations on H-2B labor
certification and enforcement, was issued jointly by DHS and DOL, rather than by DOL alone.
This joint issuance came in response to litigation chal enging DOL’s rulemaking authority with
respect to the H-2B program. As noted, the INA does not assign DOL an explicit role in the H-2B
visa program. As addressed in the supplementary information to the 2015 rule:
To ensure that there can be no question about the authority for and validity of the
regulations in this area, DHS and DOL (the Departments), together, are issuing this interim
final rule. By proceeding together, the Departments affirm that this rule is fully consistent
with the INA and implementing DHS regulations and is vital to DHS’s ability to faithfuly
implement the statutory labor protections attendant to the program.64
Regulations on H-2B labor certification establish a two-part labor certification process with
distinct registration and application phases.65 In the registration phase, DOL must assess an
employer’s temporary need for H-2B workers. A prospective H-2B employer is required to
submit an H-2B registration 120 days to 150 days before the initial date of need for workers and
must receive registration approval before filing a labor certification application. A registration
approval can be valid for up to three years. (As of the date of this report, the registration process
is not operational; DOL continues to make determinations about temporary need when it
processes labor certification applications.)

61 T here is a similar permanent regulatory provision that predates the temporary final rule that allows an H-2A worker
to begin work with a new petitioning employer before the petition is approved if the employer participates in the E -
Verify employment eligibility verification system. 8 C.F.R. §274a.12(b)(21). Unlike the provision in the temporary
final rule that allows the new employment to begin only on the petition work start date and authorizes such
employment for up to 45 days, the provision for E-Verify employers enables H-2A workers to begin the new
employment immediately, upon DHS receipt of the new H-2A petition, and authorizes employment for up to 120 days.
For information on E-Verify, see CRS Report R40446, Electronic Em ploym ent Eligibility Verification .
62 2020 DHS temporary H-2B rule, p. 28847.
63 Ibid.
64 2015 DHS/DOL interim final H-2B rule, pp. 24045-24046.
65 20 C.F.R. Part 655, Subpart A.
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Regarding the employer’s period of need for workers, the regulations provide that except in cases
of a one-time occurrence, labor certification applications with a period of employer need of more
than nine months wil general y be denied. According to the supplementary information to the
2015 interim final rule, “Recurring temporary needs of more than 9 months are, as a practical
matter, permanent positions for which H–2B labor certification is not appropriate.” The
supplementary information also maintains that “DOL’s temporary need period [of nine months]
fal s comfortably within the parameters of the general ‘one year or less’ limitation contained in
the DHS regulations.”66 The regulations also limit participation of job contractors in the H-2B
program to cases in which they can demonstrate their own temporary need for workers, not that
of their employer-clients.67
During the labor certification application phase, as detailed in the regulations, ETA determines
whether U.S. workers are available to fil the labor needs of the employer. Between 75 and 90
days before the employer’s date of need for workers, a prospective H-2B employer must
concurrently submit a labor certification application to ETA and a job order to the SWA serving
the area of intended employment. If ETA determines that the submissions are complete and
comply with applicable requirements, it wil direct the SWA to place the job order into intrastate
and interstate clearance and wil post the job order on its electronic job registry to recruit U.S.
workers.68 ETA wil also direct the employer to conduct recruitment of U.S. workers, including by
contacting former U.S. workers. The employer must continue to accept referrals and applications
of U.S. applicants until 21 days before the date of need.
A prospective H-2B employer must indicate the starting and ending dates of the period of need
for H-2B workers. If within a season an employer has more than one date of need for workers to
perform the same job, the employer must file a separate labor certification application for each
date of need. The employer is not al owed to stagger the entry of H-2B workers based on one date
of need. There is an exception to this staggered entry prohibition that permits an employer in the
seafood industry with an approved H-2B petition to bring in the H-2B workers under that petition
any time during the 120 days beginning on the employer’s starting date of need. In order to bring
in the workers between day 90 and day 120, though, the employer must conduct additional U.S.
worker recruitment.69
The regulations further require that employers offer and provide required wages and benefits to
H-2B workers and workers engaged in corresponding employment. Corresponding employment
for purposes of the H-2B program is the employment of non-H-2B workers by an employer that
has an approved H-2B labor certification when those workers are performing either substantial y
the same work included in the job order or substantial y the same work performed by the H-2B
workers, with exceptions for certain incumbent workers. 70 H-2B employers are required to pay
workers the highest of the prevailing wage rate or the federal, state, or local minimum wage.71

66 2015 DHS/DOL interim final H-2B rule, p. 24056. Language included in annual DOL appropriations acts since
FY2016, however, specifies that the definition of temporary need for H-2B purposes will be that in DHS regulations
(i.e., one year or less) (see “ Enacted Provisions” for statutory citations).
67 T his restriction reflects a concern that job contractors often have an ongoing, permanent need for workers rather than
a temporary need, as statutorily required for the H-2B visa.
68 T he registry is available at https://seasonaljobs.dol.gov/jobs.
69 T his staggered entry provision has also been included in annual DOL appropriations acts since FY2015 (see
“Enacted Provisions” for statutory citations).
70 Language included in annual DOL appropriations acts since FY2016 prohibits the use of funds to enforce this
definition of corresponding employment (see “ Enacted Provisions” for statutory citations).
71 Language included in annual DOL appropriations acts since FY2016 addresses H-2B prevailing wages (see “ Enacted
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They must offer a three-fourths guarantee (similar to that under the H-2A program) that ensures
payment of wages for at least three-fourths of the contract period.72 Among other benefits, they
must pay or reimburse workers for transportation costs (beyond the statutory requirements
concerning early dismissal of workers) and visa costs, and they must provide workers with
workers’ compensation insurance.73
As under the H-2A visa program, the regulations address emergency circumstances in which, due
to natural or manmade catastrophic events beyond the employer’s control, an H-2B employer no
longer needs the services of a worker. In such cases, the employer may terminate the job order
with DOL approval. However, the employer remains obligated to meet certain responsibilities
toward the worker.74
Also as under the H-2A program, ETA enforces H-2B employer compliance with obligations
related to the labor certification process. It may conduct audits of adjudicated labor certification
applications. Under certain circumstances, it may revoke an approved certification or debar an
employer from receiving future certifications.
WHD also has enforcement responsibility under the H-2B visa program, which is detailed in
regulations.75 It enforces the rights of H-2B workers and workers in corresponding employment
and the employer’s obligations to H-2B and U.S. workers, such as whether employment was
offered to U.S. workers. WHD is responsible for carrying out investigations, inspections, and law
enforcement functions as wel as, in appropriate instances, imposing penalties or taking other
actions, including debarment.

Provisions” for statutory citations).
72 Language included in annual DOL appropriations acts since FY2016 prohibits the use of funds to enforce the three -
fourths guarantee rule (see “ Enacted Provisions” for statutory citations). In a fact sheet originally published in April
2015, following enactment of the FY2016 appropriations act, DOL addressed the prohibitions on enforcing the
definitions of the three-fourths guarantee and corresponding employment. DOL took the position that the FY2016
appropriations riders “did not vacate these regulatory provisions, and they remain in effect, thus imposing a legal duty
on H-2B employers, even though the Department will not use any funds to enforce them until such time as the rider
may be lifted.” U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour Division, Fact Sheet #78E: Job Hours and the Three-
Fourths Guarantee under the H-2B Program , April 2015 (as updated), https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/WHD/
legacy/files/whdfs78e.pdf.
73 H-2B workers, like nonimmigrants generally, are not eligible for federally funded public assistance, with the
exception of certain emergency services. See CRS Report RL33809, Noncitizen Eligibility for Federal Public
Assistance: Policy Overview. However, nonimmigrants are generally subject to the provisions of the Affordable Care
Act (P.L. 111-148), as amended. See archived CRS Report R43561, Treatm ent of Noncitizens Under the Affordable
Care Act.
74 T hese responsibilities include fulfilling a three-fourths guarantee for the period between the contract start date and
the termination date. 20 C.F.R. §655.20(g). In a March 2020 FAQ, DOL addressed the application of these DOL H-2B
“impossibility of fulfillment” regulations and similar DOL H-2A regulations during the COVID-19 pandemic:
“Employers who received temporary labor certification under the H-2A, H-2B, or CW-1 visa programs may request
approval from the … [ET A’s Office of Foreign Labor Certification] to terminate work under the job order and/or work
contracts before the end date of work due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.” U.S. Department of Labor,
Employment and T raining Administration, Office of Foreign Labor Certification, “COVID-19, Frequently Asked
Questions, Round 1,” March 20, 2020, p. 7, https://www.foreignlaborcert.doleta.gov/pdf/DOL-OFLC_COVID-
19_FAQs_Round%201_03.20.2020.pdf.
75 29 C.F.R. Part 503.
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Legislative Activity
Since the 1990s, a variety of legislative proposals have been put forward concerning foreign
temporary agricultural and nonagricultural workers. Some of these proposals have been
introduced in Congress as stand-alone bil s, while others have been part of larger immigration or
other measures. While most have seen no legislative action, a number of guest worker-related
provisions and bil s have been considered and, in some cases, enacted into law.
Major guest worker reform legislation was considered in the 113th Congress. The Senate passed a
comprehensive immigration reform bil that would have established new temporary agricultural
and nonagricultural worker visas, reformed the H-2B visa, and phased out the H-2A visa.76 In
addition, the House Judiciary Committee reported a bil in the 113th Congress to establish a new
H-2C agricultural worker visa to replace the H-2A visa.77
While some Members have continued to put forward legislation to establish new temporary
worker visas for agricultural and nonagricultural workers,78 guest worker bil s introduced in
recent years have more commonly proposed changes to the existing visa programs. For example,
recent bil s on the H-2B visa have focused largely on the statutory annual cap. They include
proposals to establish a permanent exemption from the H-2B cap for H-2B returning workers and
to create new exemptions from the cap for H-2B workers performing certain types of work.79
Bil s on the H-2A visa introduced in recent Congresses would variously change existing H-2A
requirements concerning temporary need, wages, U.S. worker recruitment, and housing, among
other items.80 One such bil —the Farm Workforce Modernization Act (H.R. 5038)—passed the
House in the 116th Congress.
H.R. 5038, as passed by the House, would make significant changes to the H-2A visa. With
respect to required wages, it would revise one of the applicable wage rates, the adverse effect
wage rate (see “Wages”). It would establish a six-year Portable H–2A Visa Pilot Program to
enable a limited number of H-2A workers to perform agricultural labor for employers who would
not need to file H-2A petitions. It would also al ow DHS to approve petitions for H-2A workers to
perform year-round agricultural work, subject to an initial annual numerical limitation of 20,000
(see “Temporary or Seasonal Nature of Work” for related discussion).81

76 See archived CRS Report R43097, Comprehensive Immigration Reform in the 113th Congress: Major Provisions in
Senate-Passed S. 744.
77 See archived CRS Report R43161, Agricultural Guest Workers: Legislative Activity in the 113th Congress.
78 See, for example, H.R. 4760 (Division A, T itle II), as introduced and considered on the House floor, in the 115 th
Congress. H.R. 4760 would have established a new H-2C visa for temporary agricultural workers. (It was one of
several bills considered on the House or the Senate floor in June 2018 that included provisions on unauthorized
childhood arrivals. House floor action on H.R. 4760 is discussed in CRS Report R45995, Unauthorized Childhood
Arrivals, DACA, and Related Legislation.) Also see S. 2827, as introduced in the 114th Congress, which proposed a
new H-2C visa for nonagricultural workers.
79 See, for example, H.R. 798 and H.R. 2658, as introduced in the 116th Congress.
80 See, for example, H.R. 60, H.R. 1778, and H.R. 3740, as introduced in the 116th Congress.
81 In addition to making changes to the H-2A program, H.R. 5038 would establish a legalization program for
unauthorized agricultural workers and would require agricultural employers to participate in an employment eligibility
verification program modeled on E-Verify.
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Enacted Provisions Since 2015
Since the 114th Congress, provisions on the H-2B visa have been regularly enacted as part of
appropriations measures. One set of such provisions concerns certain H-2B regulations related to
DOL labor certification. Language included in DOL appropriations acts for each year from
FY2016 to FY2020 addresses the H-2B prevailing wage, requires use of the DHS regulatory
definition of H-2B temporary need (i.e., one year or less), and prohibits the use of funds to
enforce the definition of corresponding employment and the three-quarters guarantee rule (see
“Wages” and “DHS/DOL Regulations on H-2B Employment”).82 In addition, DOL appropriations
acts for each year from FY2015 to F2020 include “staggered entry” provisions that give
employers in the seafood industry with approved H-2B petitions additional time (beyond the
approved start date) to bring in workers (see “DHS/DOL Regulations on H-2B Employment”).83
A second set of appropriations provisions concerns the H-2B statutory cap. H-2B cap relief has
taken two different forms in recent years. For FY2016, Congress enacted an H-2B returning
worker exemption that provided that a returning H-2B worker who had been counted against the
66,000 cap in FY2013, FY2014, or FY2015 would not be counted again in FY2016.84 For
FY2017, FY2018, FY2019, and FY2020, Congress enacted a different type of H-2B cap-related
provision.85 These provisions authorized DHS, after consultation with DOL, to make additional
H-2B visas (beyond the 66,000 cap) available in a fiscal year, subject to certain constraints, upon
a determination that the needs of American businesses could not be satisfied with available U.S.
workers. DHS rules implementing these provisions made 15,000 additional H-2B visas available
annual y for FY2017 and FY2018, and 30,000 additional H-2B visas available for FY2019.86 For
FY2020, DHS had planned to issue a rule making 35,000 additional H-2B visas available, but
announced on April 2, 2020, that it was putting that rule on hold.87
Policy Considerations
Guest worker programs general y try to achieve two goals simultaneously: to be responsive to
legitimate employer needs for temporary labor and to provide adequate protections for U.S. and
foreign temporary workers. DOL explicitly addressed the idea of balancing the needs of
employers and workers in the supplementary information accompanying a 2011 proposed rule on
the H-2B visa:

82 P.L. 114-113, Division H, T itle I, §112, §113 (FY2016); P.L. 115-31, Division H, T itle I, §112, §113 (FY2017); P.L.
115-141, Division H, T itle I, §112, §113 (FY2018); P.L. 115-245, Division B, T itle I, §111, §112 (FY2019); P.L. 116-
94, Division A, T itle I, §110, §111 (FY2020).
83 P.L. 113-235, Division G, T itle I, §108 (FY2015); P.L. 114-113, Division H, T itle I, §111 (FY2016); P.L. 115-31,
Division H, T itle I, §111 (FY2017); P.L. 115-141, Division H, T itle I, §111 (FY2018); P.L. 115-245, Division B, T itle
I, §110 (FY2019); P.L. 116-94, Division A, T itle I, §109 (FY2020). For additional information about the staggered
entry provision, see CRS Report R44306, The H-2B Visa and the Statutory Cap.
84 P.L. 114-113, Division F, T itle V, §565. H-2B returning worker provisions were also enacted for FY2005, FY2006,
and FY2007, but not in appropriations measures. See CRS Report R44306, The H-2B Visa and the Statutory Cap.
85 P.L. 115-31, Division F, T itle V, §543 (FY2017); P.L. 115-141, Division M, T itle II, §205 (FY2018); P.L. 116-6,
Division H, T itle I, §105 (FY2019); P.L. 116-94, Division I, T itle I, §105 (FY2020).
86 For additional information about the FY2017, FY2018, and FY2019 statutory provisions and related implementing
rules, see CRS Report R44306, The H-2B Visa and the Statutory Cap.
87 According to the tweet announcing the change, “DHS’s rule on the H-2B cap is on hold pending review due to
present economic circumstances. No addit ional H-2B visas will be released until further notice.” Quoted in Suzanne
Monyak, “DHS Halts Extra Guestworker Visas As Unemployment Jumps,” Law360, April 2, 2020.
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Although the Department still seeks to maintain an efficient system, it has in this new rule
struck a balance between reducing processing times and protecting U.S. worker access to
these job opportunities.88
The balancing of broad guest worker program goals is reflected, in practice, in the particular
provisions that H-2A and H-2B proposals include on a range of component policy considerations,
such as program administration, the labor market test, and wages, among others.
Program Administration
Under the H-2A and H-2B programs, DOL makes determinations on labor certification
applications, and DHS adjudicates nonimmigrant visa petitions (see Figure 1). Under the INA, as
explained, prospective H-2A employers must apply to DOL for labor certification. The INA does
not require DOL labor certification for the H-2B visa. Rather, it makes general reference to
“consultation with appropriate agencies of the Government” as part of the process of adjudicating
petitions for “H” and other specified nonimmigrants.89 The requirement for H-2B labor
certification by DOL is established by regulation. The supplementary information accompanying
the current 2015 DHS/DOL interim final rule on H-2B employment includes the following
rationale for DOL’s labor certification role:
DOL is the appropriate government agency with expertise in labor questions and historic
and specific expertise in addressing labor protection questions related to the H–2B
program. This advice helps DHS fulfill its statutory duty to determine, prior to approving
an H–2B petition, that unemployed U.S. workers capable of performing the relevant service
or labor cannot be found in the United States.90
Over the years, regulatory and legislative proposals have sought to establish new agency roles in
administering guest worker programs. For example, H-2B rules proposed in 2005 by DHS and
DOL would have eliminated DOL’s labor certification role in the interest of efficiency. Under this
proposal, which was ultimately withdrawn in the face of opposition, employers would have
applied directly to DHS for H-2B workers and would have included certain labor attestations with
their applications.91 Under some more recent proposals for new guest worker programs, such as
that included in H.R. 4760, as considered on the House floor in the 115th Congress, employers
likewise would have applied directly to DHS.92
H.R. 4760 also envisioned a new role for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) in its
proposed agricultural worker program. USDA would have been charged with ensuring employer

88 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “T emporary
Non-Agricultural Employment of H–2B Aliens in the United States,” 76 Federal Register 15129, 15133, March 18,
2011 (hereinafter cited as “2011 DOL proposed H-2B rule”) (see Appendix D).
89 INA §214(c)(1); 8 U.S.C. §1184(c)(1).
90 2015 DHS/DOL interim final H-2B rule, p. 24045.
91 See U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “Petitions for Aliens T o Perform T emporary Nonagricultural Services
or Labor (H–2B),” 70 Federal Register 3984, January 27, 2005; U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining
Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “ Post -Adjudication Audits of H-2B Petitions in All Occupations Other
T han Excepted Occupations in the United States,” 70 Federal Register 3993, January 27, 2005. Under this proposal,
DOL would have conducted post -certification audits.
92 H.R. 4760, Division A, T itle II. T he temporary agricultural worker program provisions in H.R. 4760 were also
included in H.R. 4092, as ordered to be reported in the 115th Congress.
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compliance with program requirements. Some past and present legislative measures to reform the
H-2A program have proposed reassigning DOL’s administrative responsibilities to USDA.93
Labor Market Test
Fundamental questions about any guest worker program include if and how it tests the labor
market to determine whether U.S. workers are available for the job opportunities in question.
Under both the H-2A and H-2B programs, employers interested in hiring foreign workers must
first go through the process of labor certification. Intended to protect job opportunities for U.S.
workers, labor certification entails a determination by DOL about whether qualified U.S. workers
are available to perform the needed work and whether the hiring of foreign workers wil
adversely affect the wages and working conditions of similarly employed U.S. workers.
Recruitment is the primary method used to determine U.S. worker availability. While there is
widespread agreement on the goals of labor certification, the process itself has been criticized for
being cumbersome, slow, expensive, and ineffective in protecting U.S. workers.
The nature of the labor market test was a main difference between the DOL H-2A and H-2B rules
issued by the George W. Bush Administration in 2008 and the rules issued by the Obama
Administration in 2010 and 2015, which are now in effect. The 2008 DOL rules for both
programs changed the traditional y supervised labor certification process into an attestation-based
certification process (see Appendix D). In the supplementary information to its 2008 proposed H-
2A rule, DOL cited criticism of the labor certification process as “complicated, time-consuming,
and requiring the considerable expenditure of resources by employers.” It further stated that its
proposals “to re-engineer the H–2A program processing” wil “simplify the process by which
employers obtain a labor certification while maintaining, and even enhancing, the Department’s
substantial role in ensuring that U.S. workers have access to agricultural job opportunities.”94
Current regulations on H-2A and H-2B employment return to a supervised, certification-based
model of labor certification (see “DOL Regulations on H-2A Employment” and “DHS/DOL
Regulations on H-2B Employment” above). A key argument made in support of this change
concerned the need to restore protections for U.S. and foreign workers. For example, a 2011 DOL
proposed H-2B rule stated:
[T]here are insufficient worker protections in the current attestation -based model in which
employers merely assert, and do not demonstrate, that they have performed an adequate
test of the U.S. labor market and one which is in accordance with the regulations.95
Legislative guest worker proposals continue to incorporate various forms of labor attestation. In
some cases, they seek to replace existing labor certification requirements w ith labor attestation
requirements, while general y retaining the current two-stage process in which employers first
test the labor market and then, after receiving certification, petition for guest workers.96 Other
measures represent a greater departure from the current system in proposing to eliminate the

93 See, for example, H.R. 5795, as introduced in the 116th Congress, and H.R. 281 and H.R. 641, as introduced in the
115th Congress.
94 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “ T emporary
Agricultural Employment of H–2A Aliens in the United States; Modernizing the Labor Certification Process and
Enforcement ,” 73 Federal Register 8538, 8542, February 18, 2008.
95 2011 DOL proposed H-2B rule, p. 15132 (see Appendix D).
96 See, for example, H.R. 281, as introduced in the 115th Congress.
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current labor certification application step and to incorporate labor attestation requirements into
the process of petitioning for guest workers.97
Wages
To prevent adverse effects on similarly employed U.S. workers, the H-2A and H-2B programs
require employers to offer wages at or above specified levels. The particular wage requirements,
which vary by program, are in regulation.98 Under the H-2A program, employers must pay their
workers the highest of the federal or applicable state minimum wage rate, the applicable
prevailing wage rate,99 the adverse effect wage rate (AEWR),100 or the agreed-upon collective
bargaining wage rate. Under the H-2B program, employers must pay their workers the highest of
the federal, state, or local minimum wage or the prevailing wage rate.
Wage requirements have been a key area of controversy about the H-2A and H-2B programs. The
2015 DHS/DOL interim final rule on H-2B wages was issued following years of court chal enges
and congressional objections to earlier regulations.101 Regarding H-2B wage requirements,
provisions included in annual DOL appropriations acts since FY2016 mandate that the prevailing
wage for H-2B purposes be the greater of the actual wage paid by the employer to other
employees with similar experience and qualifications for the position in the same location, or the
prevailing wage level for the occupational classification in the applicable geographic area. The
appropriations language further requires DOL to accept a private wage survey for determining the
prevailing wage unless “the methodology and data in the provided survey are not statistical y
supported” (see “Enacted Provisions” for statutory citations).
Policy differences about H-2A wage requirements center on the AEWR; the H-2A visa is the only
nonimmigrant visa subject to it. A single AEWR is set annual y for each state or region based on
data from USDA’s Farm Labor Survey.102 Farm labor advocates have argued that the AEWR is
necessary to protect U.S. agricultural workers from a possible depression of wages resulting from
the hiring of foreign workers. Employers have long maintained that the AEWR results in inflated
wage rates.
Legislative proposals over the years to reform the H-2A program or establish new agricultural
guest worker programs have often included provisions to eliminate the use of the AEWR or
effectively redefine it. In the 116th Congress, House-passed H.R. 5038 proposes to calculate
separate AEWRs for individual occupational classifications, preferably by state or region if such

97 See, for example, S. 792, as introduced in the 115th Congress.
98 20 C.F.R. §655.120, §655.12(l) (H-2A); 20 C.F.R. §655.20(a) (H-2B).
99 In general, the prevailing wage rate is the average wage paid to similarly employed workers in an occupation in an
area of intended employment.
100 T he AEWR is equal to the annual weight ed average hourly wage for field and livestock workers combined in a state
or region, as published annually by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
101 U.S. Department of Homeland Security and U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration
and Wage and Hour Division, “ Wage Methodology for the T emporary Non -Agricultural Employment H–2B Program,”
80 Federal Register 24145, April 29, 2015 (hereinafter cited as “ 2015 DHS/DOL final H-2B wage rule”). For a
discussion of the controversy surrounding this rule, see pp. 24146-24154. The content of this rule is beyond the scope
of this report.
102 For 2020, the AEWR ranges from $11.71 for Alabama, Georgia, and South Carolina, to $15.83 for Oregon and
Washington State. T he 2020 AEWRs for all states are available in U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and
T raining Administration, “Labor Certification Process for the T emporary Employment of Aliens in Agriculture in the
United States: 2020 Adverse Effect Wage Rates for Non -Range Occupations,” 84 Federal Register 69774, December
19, 2019.
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data are reported.103 The bil also includes provisions to limit annual AEWR increases and
decreases. A fact sheet on H.R. 5038 describes the impact of moving to a system of occupation-
specific AEWRs: “This wil ensure that wage requirements better reflect the real-world wages
paid to specific types of workers. Some workers would see higher wages (machine operators),
while others would see lower wages (crop workers).”104
Temporary or Seasonal Nature of Work
The H-2A and H-2B programs are, by definition, limited to temporary or seasonal work.105 They
are intended to meet employers’ temporary—and not permanent—needs for labor when U.S.
workers cannot be found.
This “temporary or seasonal” requirement places restrictions on both programs. With respect to
the H-2A program, it means that the program cannot be used to meet employers’ year-round
agricultural labor needs absent a statutory provision. There is a long-standing exception to this
year-round restriction for herding on the range.106 Legislation in recent Congresses has sought to
include dairy industry activities—most of which are excluded from the H-2A program as being
year-round—in the H-2A program by amending INA provisions of the H-2A visa.107 Other
legislative proposals would more broadly amend the statutory definition of the H-2A visa to
eliminate the requirement that H-2A nonimmigrants perform work “of a temporary or seasonal
nature.”108 H.R. 5038, as passed by the House in the 116th Congress, takes a more incremental
approach. It would permit a limited number of H-2A workers (initial y capped at 20,000 per year)
to perform year-round employment, with a set aside for dairy work.
Under the H-2B program, as described, the employer’s need for the duties to be performed by the
worker must be a one-time occurrence, seasonal need, peakload need, or intermittent need. Some

103 A 2019 DOL proposed rule on H-2A employment would revise the H-2A wage requirements to similarly establish
AEWRs by agricultural occupation, although the particulars of the AEWR changes in the proposed rule and House -
passed H.R. 5038 differ. T he proposed rule would also modify the methodology used to determine H-2A prevailing
wages. U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division,
“T emporary Agricultural Employment of H–2A Nonimmigrants in the United States,” 84 Federal Register 36168, July
26, 2019. For information about other components of the proposed rule, see Appe ndix D.
104 See Farm Workforce Modernization Act, https://lofgren.house.gov/sites/lofgren.house.gov/files/
Bipartisan%20Farm%20Workforce%20Modernization%20Act%20-%20One%20Pager.pdf.
105 T he INA definition of the H-2A nonimmigrant category generally requires the agricultural work to be “of a
temporary or seasonal nature” (INA §101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(a); 8 U.S.C. §1101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(a)), and the INA definition of
the H-2B nonimmigrant category requires the performance of nonagricultural “ temporary service or labor” (INA
§101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(b); 8 U.S.C. §1101(a)(15)(H)(ii)(b)). In the case of both the H-2A and H-2B visas, this temporary
nature-of-the-work requirement is separate from and in addition to the requirement that workers must be coming for a
temporary period of time.
106 Herding activities are not mentioned in the INA definition of the H-2A nonimmigrant category. However, according
to DOL, the inclusion of herding, specifically sheepherding, in the H-2A program has a statutory basis: “ Sheepherders
… owe their inclusion in the program to a statutory provision dating back to the 1950s. T hat legislative inclusion was
implicitly ratified in [the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986].” See U.S. Department of Labor, Employment
and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “T emporary Agricultural Employ ment of H-2A Aliens in
the United States,” 75 Federal Register 6884, 6891, February 12, 2010 (hereinafter cited as “2010 DOL H-2A rule”).
For many years, DOL sub-regulatory guidance (special procedures) governed the labor certification process for
occupations in sheep and goat herding and range production of livestock. In 2015, DOL published a final rule to
establish a single set of regulations for H-2A employment in these occupations (see “ “ Range Herding and Livestock
Regulations”).
107 See, for example, H.R. 1778, as introduced in the 116th Congress.
108 See, for example, H.R. 60, as introduced in the 115th Congress.
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proposals in past Congresses would have broadened the H-2B visa from a category restricted to
temporary need to one covering “short-term” labor.109 This change, which was not enacted, would
have permitted H-2B workers to fil a wider range of job openings.
Numerical Limits
A numerical cap provides a means, separate from program requirements, of limiting the number
of foreign workers who can be admitted annual y in a visa category. The H-2A visa is not
numerical y limited. The H-2B program, by contrast, is statutorily capped at 66,000 annual y.
Certain H-2B petitions are exempt from the cap, such as petitions filed for current H-2B workers
who are seeking an extension of stay, a change of employer, or a change in the terms of
employment and petitions filed for fish roe workers and supervisors (see “H-2B Statutory
Provisions”).110
Annual numerical limitations on the H-2B visa and other capped temporary worker visas are
implemented by DHS at the petition stage. Under DHS regulations:
When calculating the numerical limitations ... for a given fiscal year, USCIS will make
numbers available to petitions in the order in which the petitions are filed. USCIS will
make projections of the number of petitions necessary to achieve the numerical limit of
approvals, taking into account historical data related to approvals, denials, revocations, and
other relevant factors. USCIS will monitor the number of petitions (including the number
of beneficiaries requested when necessary) received and will notify the public of the date
that USCIS has received the necessary number of petitions (the “final receipt date”).111
In other words, in a given fiscal year USCIS accepts the number of petitions it estimates wil
result in the appropriate number of foreign workers receiving a visa or otherwise obtaining status
under a particular temporary worker visa program. USCIS has described the inherent chal enges
in this system in connection with the H-2B visa:
It can be difficult to estimate in advance how many beneficiaries of an H-2B petition
approved by USCIS will actually seek H-2B status or eventually be issued an H-2B visa
by the Department of State (DOS).112
If USCIS accepts more petitions than necessary, the H-2B cap can be exceeded. In at least one
year (FY2015), however, USCIS initial y accepted too few petitions and had to briefly reopen the
window for accepting cap-subject H-2B petitions.113
In years when the demand for H-2B visas exceeds the supply, there is pressure to admit additional
H-2B workers. Temporary statutory provisions have been enacted to al ow for the admission of
additional H-2B workers (beyond the 66,000 cap) every year since FY2016 (see “Enacted
Provisions” above). These provisions permit the admission of increased numbers of H-2B
workers, while leaving the statutory annual 66,000 limit in place.

109 See, for example, S. 1918, as introduced in the 109th Congress.
110 For additional information, see CRS Report R44306, The H-2B Visa and the Statutory Cap.
111 8 C.F.R. §214.2((h)(8)(ii)(B).
112 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, “USCIS to Reopen H-2B Cap
for the Second Half of Fiscal Year 2015,” June 5, 2015, https://www.uscis.gov/news/alerts/uscis-reopen-h-2b-cap-
second-half-fiscal-year-2015.
113 See CRS Report R44306, The H-2B Visa and the Statutory Cap.
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Treatment of Family Members
The INA al ows for the admission to the United States of the spouses and minor children of
foreign workers on H-2A, H-2B, and other “H” visas who are accompanying or following to join
the worker. These family members are issued H-4 visas and do not count against the numerical
cap, if any, on the relevant temporary worker visa (such as the H-2B visa). Al owing for the
admission of guest workers’ spouses and minor children enables families to stay together. On the
other hand, this practice has been faulted for decreasing incentives for guest workers to return
home after their authorized period of stay. Some legislative proposals to establish new guest
worker programs would have explicitly prohibited family members from accompanying or
following to join principal aliens.114
Enforcement
Another set of considerations relates to enforcement of the terms of guest worker programs. With
respect to the H-2A program, the INA broadly authorizes the Secretary of Labor to
take such actions, including imposing appropriate penalties and seeking appropriate
injunctive relief and specific performance of contractual obligations, as may be necessary
to assure employer compliance with terms and conditions of employment.115
More limited language added to the INA in 2005 applies to the H-2B program. These provisions
authorize the Secretary of Homeland Security to impose administrative remedies and to deny
certain petitions filed by an employer if the Secretary finds “a substantial failure to meet any of
the conditions of the [H-2B] petition” or “a wil ful misrepresentation of a material fact in such
petition.”116 As discussed, the Secretary of Homeland Security has delegated this enforcement
authority to the Secretary of Labor in accordance with an agreement between the two agencies.
The Secretary of Labor subsequently delegated this authority to WHD, which is now responsible
for assuring employer compliance with the terms and conditions of H-2B employment.117
Another enforcement-related question concerns what type of mechanism, if any, ensures that
guest workers do not remain in the United States beyond their authorized period of stay and
become part of the unauthorized population. Among the related regulatory provisions currently in
effect are provisions establishing notification requirements for H-2A and H-2B employers. DHS
regulations on the H-2A visa and the H-2B visa require petitioners to notify DHS within two
work days when an H-2A or H-2B worker fails to report at the start of the employment period,
absconds118 from the worksite, or is terminated prior to completion of the work, or when the work
for which H-2A or H-2B workers were hired is completed early.119 In the case of the H-2B visa,
DHS explained the purpose of these notification requirements as enabling the agency

114 See, for example, H.R. 4760 (Division A, T itle II), as introduced in the 115th Congress.
115 INA §218(g)(2); 8 U.S.C. §1188(g)(2).
116 INA §214(c)(14)(A); 8 U.S.C. §1184(c)(14)(A).
117 U.S. Department of Labor, Office of the Secretary, Secretary’s Order 01–2014, 79 Federal Register 77527,
December 24, 2014. For an evaluation of federal enforcement of H-2A and H-2B program laws and regulations, see
U.S. Government Accountability Office, H-2A and H-2B Visa Program s: Increased Protections Needed for Foreign
Workers, GAO-15-154, March 2015.
118 Absconding is defined as not reporting for work for five consecutive work days without the employer’s consent. 8
C.F.R. §§214.2(h)(5)(vi)(E), (h)(6)(i)(F)(2).
119 8 C.F.R. §§214.2(h)(5)(vi)(B)(1), (h)(6)(i)(F)(1).
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to keep track of H–2B workers while they are in the United States and take appropriate
enforcement action where DHS determines that the H–2B workers have violated the terms
and conditions of their nonimmigrant stay.120
Other suggestions that have been offered to help ensure that temporary workers depart at the end
of their authorized period of stay include involving the workers’ home countries in guest worker
programs. Another idea is to create an incentive for foreign workers to leave the United States at
the appropriate time by, for example, withholding earnings or otherwise setting aside a sum of
money for each worker that would only become available once the worker returned home.121
Unauthorized Workers
The H-2A and H-2B visa programs account for a fraction of al the workers in the United States
performing the type of agricultural and nonagricultural work covered by these visas.
Unauthorized workers comprise a sizeable percentage of workers in some related industries and
occupations. For example, according to Pew Research Center estimates, unauthorized workers
held about a quarter of farming jobs and 15% of construction jobs in 2016.122
Policymakers have periodical y considered establishing a statutory mechanism to grant permanent
immigration status to unauthorized or authorized guest workers. Historical y, these discussions
have focused on agricultural workers, and in some past and present legislative measures, guest
worker reform provisions have been paired with programs to grant permanent immigration status.
For example, along with its agricultural guest worker provisions, the comprehensive immigration
reform bil passed by the Senate in 2013 proposed a two-stage agricultural worker legalization
program, through which farm workers who had performed a requisite amount of agricultural work
and satisfied other requirements could have obtained legal temporary resident status (termed
“blue card” status). After meeting additional agricultural work and other requirements, these
workers could have applied for lawful permanent resident (LPR) status. (Unauthorized workers
and H-2A workers would have been eligible for this program.)123
More recently, in the 116th Congress, House-passed H.R. 5038 would establish a two-stage
legalization program for unauthorized agricultural workers to first obtain legal temporary
certified agricultural worker (CAW) status and then LPR status, subject to work and other
requirements at each stage. Alternatively, H.R. 5038 would permit workers to remain in CAW
status indefinitely (without ever applying for LPR status) provided they continued to perform a
requisite amount of agricultural work annual y. This “indefinite temporary status” option
distinguishes H.R. 5038 from the 2013 Senate bil and other past agricultural legalization
measures that treated the legal temporary status as a way station to LPR status and limited how
long an individual could remain in that temporary status. In addition, H.R. 5038 includes
provisions not included in earlier agricultural legalization measures to enable an H-2A worker
who had performed a threshold amount of H-2A work in each of 10 years to self-petition for LPR
status.

120 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “Changes to Requirements Affecting H-2B Nonimmigrants and T heir
Employers,” 73 Federal Register 78104, 78116, December 19, 2008 (hereinafter cited as “2008 DHS H-2B rule”).
121 See, for example, H.R. 4760 (Division A, T itle II), as introduced in the 115th Congress.
122 Jeffrey S. Passel and D’Vera Cohn, U.S. Unauthorized Immigrant Total Dips to Lowest Level in a Decade, Pew
Research Center, November 27, 2018. T he report estimates that in 2016 there we re 7.8 million unauthorized aliens in
the civilian labor force, representing 4.8% of the total.
123 Sections 2211-2212 of S. 744, as passed by the Senate in the 113th Congress. For further information about this
proposal and other proposals, see archived CRS Report R43161, Agricultural Guest Workers: Legislative Activity in the
113th Congress.
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Conclusion
Many policymakers assert that the H-2A and H-2B visa programs are not adequately meeting
employers’ labor needs and/or are not adequately protecting U.S. and foreign workers, although
their particular criticisms vary widely. In past years, proposed solutions have taken the form of
reforms to the H-2A and H-2B visas as wel as new guest worker visa programs. In the current
climate, pursuing reforms to existing visa programs seems to be the course more policymakers
are likely to follow. It remains unclear whether and how the COVID-19 pandemic may affect
future guest worker-related legislative efforts.

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Appendix A. H-2A and H-2B Certifications by State
Table A-1. Top 10 States Granted H-2A Labor Certifications: FY2018 and FY2019
Rankings based on number of positions certified

FY2018
FY2019
Positions
Positions
Ranking
State
Certified
State
Certified
1
Georgia
32,364 Florida
33,598
2
Florida
30,462 Georgia
29,480
3
Washington
24,862 Washington
26,226
4
North Carolina
21,794 California
23,321
5
California
18,908 North Carolina
21,605
6
Louisiana
10,079 Louisiana
10,816
7
Michigan
8,359 Michigan
9,096
8
New York
7,634 Kentucky
8,315
9
Kentucky
7,604 New York
8,104
10
Arizona
7,497 South Carolina
6,082

Total, All States
242,762 Total, All States
257,667
Source: CRS presentation of data from U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration,
Office of Foreign Labor Certification, H-2A Temporary Agricultural Labor Certification Program - Selected Statistics, FY
2018, and H-2A Temporary Agricultural Labor Certification Program - Selected Statistics, FY 2019.
Table A-2. Top 10 States Granted H-2B Labor Certifications: FY2018 and FY2019
Rankings based on number of positions certified

FY2018
FY2019
Positions
Positions
Ranking
State
Certified
State
Certified
1
Texas
20,443 Texas
16,106
2
Florida
10,690 Colorado
6,943
3
Colorado
7,556 Florida
5,768
4
Louisiana
5,341 North Carolina
5,074
5
Pennsylvania
5,216 Pennsylvania
5,006
6
Virginia
5,173 Louisiana
4,924
7
North Carolina
5,129 Alaska
4,892
8
South Carolina
4,984 New York
4,590
9
New York
4,579 Virginia
4,165
10
Maryland
4,439 Maryland
4,022

Total, All States
147,592 Total, All States
150,465
Source: CRS presentation of data from U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training Administration,
Office of Foreign Labor Certification, H-2B Temporary Non-Agricultural Labor Certification Program - Selected
Statistics, FY 2018, and H-2B Temporary Non-Agricultural Labor Certification Program - Selected Statistics, FY 2019 EOY.
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Appendix B. H-2B Certifications by Occupation
In FY2019, DOL approved 7,377 H-2B labor certification applications. As part of these
applications, DOL approved 150,465 requests for H-2B positions.
Typical y, a majority of H-2B requests certified by DOL are for workers in a few occupations. In
FY2019, as shown in Table B-1, 79% of certified positions were in 10 occupations. One
occupation, landscaping & groundskeeping worker, accounted for 44% of the total number of H-
2B positions certified.
Table B-1. Number of Certified H-2B Positions by Occupation, FY2019
Number of
Percentage of
Workers
Total Workers
Cumulative
Ranking
Occupation
Certified
Certified
Percentage
1
Landscaping & groundskeeping worker
66,151
44.0%
44.0%
2
Forest & conservation worker
11,283
7.5%
51.5%
3
Maid & housekeeping cleaner
9,869
6.6%
58.1%
4
Meat, poultry & fish cutter and trimmer
8,486
5.6%
63.7%
5
Amusement & recreation attendant
8,014
5.3%
69.0%
6
Waiter & waitress
4,104
2.7%
71.7%
7
Construction laborer
3,369
2.2%
73.9%
8
Cook, restaurant
3,299
2.2%
76.1%
9
Laborer & Material Mover
2,274
1.5%
77.6%
10
Nonfarm animal caretaker
2,226
1.5%
79.1%

Other
31,390
20.9%
100.0%

Total
150,465
100.0%

Source: CRS presentation of data from U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and Training
Administration, Office of Foreign Labor Certification, H-2B Temporary Non-Agricultural Labor Certification
Program - Selected Statistics, FY 2019 EOY.
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Appendix C. H-2A and H-2B Visa Issuances
Table C-1. Number of H-2A and H-2B Visas Issued, FY1992-FY2019
Fiscal Year
H-2A Visas Issued
H-2B Visas Issued
1992
6,445
12,552
1993
7,243
9,691
1994
7,721
10,400
1995
8,379
11,737
1996
11,004
12,200
1997
16,011
15,706
1998
22,676
20,192
1999
28,568
30,642
2000
30,201
45,037
2001
31,523
58,215
2002
31,538
62,591
2003
29,882
78,955
2004
31,774
76,169
2005
31,892
89,135
2006
37,149
122,541
2007
50,791
129,547
2008
64,404
94,304
2009
60,112
44,847
2010
55,921
47,403
2011
55,384
50,826
2012
65,345
50,009
2013
74,192
57,600
2014
89,274
68,102
2015
108,144
69,684
2016
134,368
84,627
2017
161,583
83,600
2018
196,408
83,774
2019
204,801
97,623
Source: CRS presentation of data from U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Consular Affairs.
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Appendix D. Supplementary Information on H-2A
and H-2B Regulations
H-2A Rules
The H-2A visa program is governed mainly by a DHS final rule issued in 2008 and a DOL final
rule issued in 2010. A 2019 DOL final rule made some additional changes to the labor
certification process. A 2019 DOL proposed rule would make major changes to the certification
process. In addition, a 2020 DHS final rule makes temporary changes to some DHS regulatory
requirements in response to the COVID-19 emergency (for a discussion of these 2020 temporary
changes, see “DHS Regulations on the H-2A Visa”).
Background
In 2008, during the George W. Bush Administration, DHS and DOL published final rules to
significantly amend their respective H-2A regulations.124 The agencies issued these rules to
streamline the H-2A program in the aftermath of unsuccessful congressional efforts to enact
comprehensive immigration reform legislation with guest worker provisions.
The DOL rule was controversial. Prior to its issuance, the H-2A labor certification process had
been a fully supervised certification-based process, in which federal or state officials reviewed an
employer’s actual efforts or documentation to ensure compliance with program requirements. The
2008 rule replaced this supervised process with an attestation-based process, in which prospective
H-2A employers had to attest in their applications, under threat of penalties, that they complied
with H-2A program requirements.
Under the Obama Administration, the 2008 DHS rule was retained, but the 2008 DOL rule was
replaced with a new H-2A final rule issued in 2010. In the supplementary information
accompanying the proposed version of this replacement rule, DOL cited concerns about employer
noncompliance with program requirements under the 2008 rule. It explained the need for new
rulemaking, in part, as follows:
The Department, upon due consideration, believes that the policy underpinnings of the
2008 Final Rule, e.g. streamlining the H–2A regulatory process to defer many
determinations of program compliance until after an Application has been fully
adjudicated, do not provide an adequate level of protection for either U.S. or foreign
workers.125
The 2010 DOL H-2A final rule reversed changes made by the 2008 rule to the H-2A labor
certification process and reestablished the type of compliance-demonstration process that had
been in effect prior to the 2008 rule.

124 2008 DHS H-2A rule; U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour
Division, “T emporary Agricultural Employment of H-2A Aliens in the United States; Modernizing the Labor
Certification Process and Enforcement,” 73 Federal Register 77110, December 18, 2008.
125 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “T emporary
Agricultural Employment of H-2A Aliens in the United States,” 74 Federal Register 45906, 45908, September 4, 2009.
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2019 DOL Final and Proposed Rules
A 2019 DOL H-2A rule made a few changes to the labor certification process.126 It eliminated a
regulatory requirement that a prospective H-2A employer advertise its job opportunity in a print
newspaper as part of its required recruitment activities. At the same time, it added a new
regulatory provision al owing the ETA officer making a determination on an H-2A labor
certification application, where appropriate, to direct the SWA to notify organizations that provide
employment and training services about the job opportunity. Under the rule, DOL also enhanced
the publicly available electronic job registry (https://seasonaljobs.dol.gov/jobs) where it posts
approved H-2A job orders to recruit U.S. workers.127
A 2019 DOL proposed rule would make more fundamental changes to the H-2A program.128 It
would further amend ETA regulations on the labor certification process and would amend WHD
regulations on the enforcement of H-2A employers’ contractual obligations. Among the major
regulatory changes included in the rule, DOL proposes to revise the methodologies used to
determine two wage rates relevant to the H-2A program: the AEWR and the prevailing wage rate
(see “Wages”). The rule would also expand the definition of agriculture for H-2A purposes to
encompass reforestation and pine straw activities.
Under the proposed rule, H-2A employers would be permitted to stagger the entry of H-2A
workers, al owing them to bring the workers into the United States at any time during the firs t
120 days after the date of need in the approved labor certification.129 DOL also proposes to
replace the existing fifty percent rule with a new 30-day rule. As discussed, the fifty percent rule
requires an H-2A employer to hire any qualified U.S. worker who applies for a position during
the first half of the work contract under which the H-2A workers who are in the job are employed.
Under DOL’s replacement 30-day rule, an H-2A employer would be required to hire any
qualified U.S. worker who applies for a job until 30 calendar days after the employer’s first date
of need on the approved labor certification. Special requirements would apply to employers who
stagger the entry of H-2A workers.
H-2B Rules
The H-2B visa program is governed mainly by a DHS final rule issued in 2008 and a DHS/DOL
interim final rule issued in 2015. A DHS/DOL final rule issued in 2015 revised the methodology
for calculating prevailing wage rates under the H-2B program. In addition, a DHS/DOL rule
issued in 2019 made some changes to the H-2B labor certification process.130 Also, a 2020 DHS
final rule makes temporary changes to some DHS regulatory requirements in response to the

126 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “Modernizing
Recruitment Requirements for the T emporary Employment of H–2A Foreign Workers in the United States,” 84
Federal Register 49439, September 20, 2019.
127 As explained in the supplementary information to the rule, “[DOL] will enhance the functional capabilities of this
registry so that it also serves as a job search website that broadly advertises and disseminates H –2A job opportunities to
U.S. workers.” Ibid, p. 49444.
128 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “T emporary
Agricultural Employment of H–2A Nonimmigrants in the United States,” 84 Federal Register 36168, July 26, 2019.
129 A staggered entry provision that applies to H-2B employers in the seafood industry is discussed in “ DHS/DOL
Regulations on H-2B Employment .”
130 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “Modernizing
Recruitment Requirements for the T emporary Employment of H–2B Foreign Workers in the United States,” 84 Federal
Register 62431, November 15, 2019.
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COVID-19 emergency (for a discussion of these 2020 temporary changes, see “DHS Regulations
on the H-2B Visa”).
Background
Mirroring regulatory actions taken on the H-2A program, DHS and DOL under the George W.
Bush Administration published final rules to significantly amend their respective H-2B
regulations in 2008. Under the DOL H-2B rule, which streamlined the labor certification process,
determinations about H-2B program compliance were made only after a labor certification
application had been adjudicated.
The Obama Administration retained the DHS H-2B rule but wanted to replace the DOL rule. To
that end, DOL published a new H-2B proposed rule in 2011. In this proposed rulemaking, DOL
took the position that the 2008 rule did not provide sufficient protections for U.S. or foreign
workers. It further described problems of noncompliance:
[I]n the first year of the operation of the attestation-based system our experience indicates
that employers are attesting to compliance with program obligations with which they have
not complied, and that employers do not appear to be recruiting, hiring and paying U.S.
workers, and in some cases the H-2B workers themselves, in accordance with established
program requirements.131
DOL issued an H-2B final rule in 2012 that required employers to show compliance with
recruitment and other requirements in advance of DOL making a determination on the labor
certification application.132 This rule, however, never became operative due to court action. A key
issue in the litigation was whether DOL had the authority to promulgate regulations for the H-2B
program (see “DHS/DOL Regulations on H-2B Employment”). In April 2015, DOL and DHS
jointly issued two H-2B rules: an interim final rule on H-2B employment that was “virtual y
identical” to the DOL 2012 final rule,133 and a companion final rule on prevailing wage rates
under the H-2B program.
2019 DOL Final Rule
A 2019 DHS/DOL H-2B final rule made changes to the H-2B labor certification process that were
analogous to some of the changes the 2019 DOL H-2A final rule made to the H-2A certification
process.134 Like the H-2A rule, the 2019 H-2B rule eliminated a regulatory requirement that a
prospective H-2A employer advertise its job opportunity in a print newspaper. DOL also indicated
that it would post H-2B job opportunities on the same expanded electronic job registry used to
advertise H-2A jobs, as discussed above.

131 2011 DOL proposed H-2B rule, p. 15132.
132 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “T emporary
Non-Agricultural Employment of H-2B Aliens in the United States,” 77 Federal Register 10038, February 21, 2012.
133 2015 DHS/DOL interim final H-2B rule, p. 24043.
134 U.S. Department of Labor, Employment and T raining Administration and Wage and Hour Division, “Modernizing
Recruitment Requirements for the T emporary Employment of H–2B Foreign Workers in the United States,” 84 Federal
Register 62431, November 15, 2019.
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Author Information

Andorra Bruno

Specialist in Immigration Policy

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should n ot be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
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