Congressional Primer on Responding to and
Recovering from Major Disasters
and Emergencies
Updated June 3, 2020
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R41981

link to page 23 Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

Summary
In the United States, the principles of disaster management presume a leadership role by the local,
state, territorial, and tribal governments affected by the incident. The U.S. federal government
does not automatically provide assistance when a disaster occurs. Instead, the federal government
provides coordinated, supplemental resources and assistance only if requested and approved. A
presidential declaration of emergency or major disaster under the authority of the Robert T.
Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (Stafford Act, P.L. 93-288, as amended)
must, in almost all cases, be requested by the governor of an affected state or territory, or the
tribal chief executive of an affected Indian tribal government. When making such a request, the
governor or tribal chief executive has declared that the situation exceeds the state/territory/tribe’s
capacity to effectively respond without federal assistance. The governor or tribal chief executive
also requests assistance for specific parts of the state/territory/tribe and specifies the types of
assistance programs that are needed. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
evaluates the request and provides a recommendation to the President. The President considers
the request, in consultation with FEMA officials, and determines whether to declare an
emergency or major disaster, and makes the initial decisions authorizing types of assistance for
the disaster-designated areas.
The majority of federal financial disaster assistance is made available from FEMA under the
authority of the Stafford Act. Other disaster aid may be available through federal programs
provided by the Small Business Administration (SBA), the Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD), the Department of Transportation (DOT), the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA), and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), among other federal
programs. State/territorial/Indian tribal and local governments, as well as private and nonprofit
sector organizations, may also provide disaster assistance. The National Response Framework
(NRF) details the roles and responsibilities of various levels of government, as well as the private
and nonprofit sectors and the community, in coordinating disaster response efforts. The NRF
provides a scalable framework for incident response and coordination, and it enables recovery.
Recovery is guided by the National Disaster Recovery Framework (NDRF). Information on the
NRF and NDRF is included in the Appendix to this report.
While the disaster response and recovery process is fundamentally a relationship between the
federal executive branch agencies and the requesting state, territorial, or Indian tribal government,
there are roles for congressional offices. For instance, congressional offices may help provide
letters of support to accompany a state/territorial/Indian tribal government’s request for a
presidential emergency or major disaster declaration, disseminate information to disaster
survivors on available federal and nonfederal assistance, support the coordination of federal
efforts in their respective states and districts, and consider legislation to provide supplemental
disaster assistance or authorities. Congress also plays a critical role in improving the delivery of
supplemental emergency management assistance by passing legislation to support needed
emergency management reform, and conducting agency oversight. Congressional offices also
serve as a valuable source of accurate and timely information to their constituents on response
and relief efforts.
Congressional Research Service

link to page 9 link to page 9 link to page 16 link to page 19 link to page 19 link to page 20 link to page 20 Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

Overview
Before and after a disaster strikes, it is useful to understand the basic national emergency
management structure and where authority rests at various stages of the process. This report
provides information to aid policymakers as they navigate the phases of disaster response and
recovery and the associated actions, and entity responsibilities. Additionally, it describes the laws
and administrative policies governing the disaster response and recovery processes. The report
also reviews the legislative framework that exists for providing federal financial assistance
following a presidential declaration of emergency or major disaster, as well as the policies the
executive branch employs to provide supplemental help to state, territorial,1 Indian tribal, and
local governments during and following disasters.
For information on the federal declaration process and assistance programs, see the “Federal
Disaster Declarations,” “Selected Examples of Federal Assistance Programs,” and “Other Federal
Assistance” sections of this report. For information about how a congressional office may wish to
prepare and respond to disasters in their state or district, see “Congressional Activity in
Disasters.”
Terms
Within this report, the term “state” refers to states and territories. For purposes of the Stafford Act, “‘State’
means any State of the United States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, American
Samoa, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands” (42 U.S.C. §5122(4)).
The term “tribes” refers to Indian tribal governments. Per the Stafford Act, “[t]he term ‘Indian tribal government’
means the governing body of any Indian or Alaska Native tribe, band, nation, pueblo, vil age, or community that
the Secretary of the Interior acknowledges to exist as an Indian tribe under the Federally Recognized Indian Tribe
List Act of 1994” (42 U.S.C. §5122(6)).
References to “states and localities” are intended to be inclusive, and are meant to be read as including “local,
state, territorial, and Indian tribal governments.”
Generally, Stafford Act assistance is requested by the “governor” (i.e., “the chief executive of any State” (42 U.S.C.
§ 5122(5)), or the “chief executive” (i.e., “the person who is the Chief, Chairman, Governor, President, or similar
executive official of an Indian tribal government” (42 U.S.C. §5122(12)).
Background on the Disaster Response Process
Who Is in Charge?
The Principle of Federalism in Emergency Management
The United States has generally taken a “bottom up” approach to both managing and providing
assistance, during and following a disaster. The responsibility for responding to disasters begins
at the local level with survivors, emergency services personnel, and elected officials. Many
incidents can be managed locally with local resources or through mutual aid agreements. If local

1 The definition of “state” provided in Stafford Act Section 102(4), 42 U.S.C. §5122(4), includes “any State of the
United States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.” Although this report seeks to acknowledge the territory
governments, any references to states should be read to also include the territories, per the definition included in
Section 102 of the Stafford Act.
Congressional Research Service

1

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

government resources are overwhelmed, nongovernmental voluntary organizations in the
community and governments in neighboring jurisdictions may be called upon to provide
assistance.2 The state, territorial, and Indian tribal governments may supplement a local
government’s resources, which may be coupled with the governor declaring a state of disaster or
emergency at the state level. If local and state/territorial/Indian tribal government resources have
been overwhelmed, and the governor of the state or the tribal chief executive of a tribal nation has
requested assistance, the federal government may begin to provide additional help.3 The role of
the federal government, as described in the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency
Assistance Act (the Stafford Act, P.L. 93-288, as amended), is to “supplement the efforts and
available resources of States, local governments, and disaster relief organizations in alleviating
the damage, loss, hardship, or suffering.”4
Given this “bottom up” approach, local and state/territorial/Indian tribal governments manage
disaster response and recovery, except in the most extraordinary circumstances.5 The Federal
Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) and other federal agencies are mandated by the
Stafford Act to aid the disaster response and recovery processes, coordinating federal resources
and services in response to state/territorial/Indian tribal requests through federal emergency
planning guidance. This includes the National Response Framework (NRF) and National Disaster
Recovery Framework (NDRF).6
Key Emergency Management Officials
The local chief elected official, such as a mayor or their appointed representative, leads the
disaster response for their community. The governor is the lead for the state/territory response, the
tribal chief executive for the tribe, and the President for the federal response.7 If state resources
are being used to supplement the local response, they are typically coordinated through a State
Coordinating Officer (SCO)8 and the state’s emergency management or homeland security

2 Neighboring jurisdictions may have mutual aid agreements to provide assistance when a jurisdiction’s response
capabilities are overwhelmed. “Mutual aid agreements establish the terms under which one party provides resources—
personnel, teams, facilities, equipment, and supplies—to another party.” Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA), National Incident Management System Guideline for Mutual Aid, November 2017, p. 1,
https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1510231079545-1fabc7af0e06d89d8c79c7b619e55a03/
NIMS_Mutual_Aid_Guideline_20171105_508_compliant.pdf.
3 See 44 C.F.R. §206.35 and 44 C.F.R. §206.36; FEMA, “The Disaster Declaration Process,” https://www.fema.gov/
disaster-declaration-process (hereinafter FEMA, “The Disaster Declaration Process”).
4 Stafford Act Section 102(2), 42 U.S.C. §5122(2).
5 There are circumstances when the federal government is the lead for a disaster. It most frequently occurs because the
incident involves an issue or hazard for which, under the Constitution or a federal law, the President or other federal
authority has exclusive or preeminent responsibility and authority. Examples include when the area affected is federal
property (e.g., in national waters, parks, or military installations) or when the disaster is caused by a terrorist act and the
Federal Bureau of Investigation becomes the lead federal law enforcement agency. Per the U.S. Department of
Homeland Security (DHS), National Response Framework, “the Federal Government may play a leading role in the
response where the Federal Government has primary jurisdiction or when incidents occur on federal property (e.g.,
national parks and military bases).” DHS, National Response Framework, 4th ed., October 28, 2019, p. 34,
https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1572366339630-0e9278a0ede9ee129025182b4d0f818e/
National_Response_Framework_4th_20191028.pdf (hereinafter DHS, NRF).
6 DHS, NRF; and DHS, National Disaster Recovery Framework, 2nd ed. June 2016, https://www.fema.gov/media-
library-data/1466014998123-4bec8550930f774269e0c5968b120ba2/National_Disaster_Recovery_Framework2nd.pdf
(hereinafter DHS, NDRF).
7 At the federal level, the President has delegated significant leadership responsibilities to the Secretary of Homeland
Security and the Administrator of FEMA.
8 FEMA, as a component of the National Incident Management System (NIMS), has developed the National
Congressional Research Service

2

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

agency. If an incident has been declared by the President as an emergency or major disaster, the
Stafford Act directs the President to request that the governor appoint an SCO if they have not
done so already.9 Similar requests are made to the tribal chief executive to appoint a Tribal
Coordinating Officer.10 At the federal level, the President, FEMA Administrator, or Regional
Administrator appoints a Federal Coordinating Officer (FCO) to coordinate all federal resources
by state.11 The FCO generally operates out of a Joint Field Office (JFO) where federal agencies
and departments coordinate their activities.12 State/territorial/Indian tribal and federal disaster
officials will often co-locate at the JFO to facilitate coordination of efforts.
Nonfederal Disaster Assistance Resources
If the capacity of a local government has been overwhelmed by an incident, they may be able to
turn to voluntary organizations within their community for additional support. In many situations,
the local government may request assistance from other, nearby local governments through
mutual aid agreements.13 If these resources are insufficient to deal with the response needs, local
governments usually turn to the state to supplement local efforts.14 When states determine that
their capacity is overwhelmed (including state use of mutual aid), the Stafford Act has established
a protocol for states to request that the federal government provide disaster relief.15
Assistance from Voluntary Organizations and Nongovernmental
Organizations
Voluntary organizations and Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)16 may provide disaster
assistance to an affected community, including in coordination with local, state, territorial, and

Qualification System (NQS). The NQS provides guidance on the personnel resources within the NIMS framework,
including position titles and qualifications. NIMS “provides a nationwide approach to enable stakeholders to work
together to manage all threats and hazards, regardless of the incident’s cause or size.” FEMA, “National Qualification
System,” last updated December 16, 2019, https://www.fema.gov/national-qualification-system. The State
Coordinating Officer (SCO) “oversees all aspects of state and federally declared disasters.” FEMA, “State Coordinating
Officer: Resource Typing Definition for Response Operational Coordination,” July 2019, https://www.fema.gov/media-
library-data/1571155062548-f5458af5ace405c77270ae0eb5f2f14a/NQS_509_StateCoordinatingOfficer.pdf.
9 Stafford Act Section 302(c), 42 U.S.C. §5143(c); and 44 C.F.R. §206.41(c).
10 FEMA, Tribal Declarations Pilot Guidance, January 2017, p. 9, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/
1523033284358-20b86875d12843441a521a6141c15099/Pilot_Guidance.pdf.
11 The role of the coordinating officers is described in Stafford Act Section 302 (42 U.S.C. §5143), and in regulations at
44 C.F.R. §206.42.
12 DHS, NRF, p. 20.
13 Mutual aid agreements are described in the FEMA, National Incident Management System Guideline for Mutual Aid,
November 2017, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1510231079545-1fabc7af0e06d89d8c79c7b619e55a03/
NIMS_Mutual_Aid_Guideline_20171105_508_compliant.pdf.
14 DHS, NRF, pp. 30-31.
15 DHS, NRF, p. 34; see also the federal statutes and regulations related to declaration requests, Stafford Act Section
401, 42 U.S.C. §5170 (procedure for declaring a major disaster) and 44 C.F.R. §206.36 (requests for major disaster
declarations); and Stafford Act Section 501, 42 U.S.C. §5191 (procedure for declaring an emergency) and 44 C.F.R.
§206.35 (requests for emergency declarations).
16 The NRF describes nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) as including “voluntary, ethnic, faith-based, veteran-
based, disability, and nonprofit organizations that provide sheltering, emergency food supplies, and other essential
support services for people, household pets, and service animals.... NGOs bolster government efforts at all levels and
often provide specialized services to the whole community. NGOs are key partners in preparedness activities and
response operations.” DHS, NRF, p. 28.
Congressional Research Service

3

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

tribal governments, as well as the federal government. Not all communities have the same
voluntary organizations. Rather, each community has a unique set of voluntary organizations
involved in response and relief. In some cases, voluntary organizations may be the best initial
source of assistance to states and localities during and following a disaster. Voluntary
organizations are not required to provide disaster assistance, but they are encouraged by federal
statute and regulation to coordinate their assistance through the structure of the NRF.17 The
American Red Cross and the National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster (National
VOAD) are two of the national organizations that have specific responsibilities under the NRF.18
Faith-based organizations may also be a key source of assistance to the community and the local
government during an incident.
If the President has declared an emergency or major disaster under the Stafford Act, FEMA may
provide additional support through Voluntary Agency Liaisons (VALs) to coordinate the efforts of
voluntary organizations serving affected communities.19
Mutual Aid Agreements
Many local governments have pre-negotiated agreements with neighboring jurisdictions to share
resources ranging from emergency service equipment (e.g., ambulances, fire trucks, etc.) to
technical experts (e.g., bridge inspectors, contract managers, etc.).20 The Emergency Management
Assistance Compact (EMAC) is an inter-state compact that provides a legal structure through
which states affected by a disaster may request emergency assistance and aid from other states.21
All EMAC member states—including the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam,
the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands—have passed

17 For example, see Stafford Act Section 309, 42 U.S.C. §5152; and 44 C.F.R. §206.12.
18 The American Red Cross is a federally chartered instrumentality of the U.S. government (see 36 U.S.C. §§300101-
300113). The National VOAD (National Voluntary Organizations Active in Disaster) is a coalition of many
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and is a valuable resource in understanding the types of assistance available
through NGOs (for more information, see the National VOAD website, available at http://www.nvoad.org/). Per the
NRF, “[s]ome NGOs and functions are officially designated as support elements to national response capabilities, such
as the following: ... The American Red Cross is chartered by Congress to provide relief to survivors of disasters and
help people prevent, prepare for, respond to, and recover from emergencies. The Red Cross has a legal status of a
‘federal chartered instrumentality’ and maintains a special relationship with the Federal Government. In this capacity,
the American Red Cross is the co-lead of ESF #6 and supports several other ESFs and the delivery of multiple core
capabilities.... [Additionally, the] National VOAD is an association of organizations that mitigates and alleviates the
impact of disasters; provides a forum promoting cooperation, communication, coordination and collaboration; and
fosters more effective delivery of services to communities impacted by a disaster. National VOAD is a consortium of
over 70 national organizations and 56 territorial and state equivalents.” (DHS, NRF, pp. 28-29).
19 According to the FEMA website, “FEMA Voluntary Agency Liaisons and Donations Specialists Map,” “[t]he
Voluntary Agency Liaison (VALs) mission is to establish, foster, and maintain relationships among government,
voluntary, faith-based, and community partners to strengthen capabilities and support the delivery of inclusive,
equitable services by empowering communities to address disaster-related unmet needs.” There are VALs assigned to
each FEMA Region. For more information and a map of the FEMA Regions and assigned FEMA VALs, see FEMA,
“FEMA Voluntary Agency Liaisons and Donations Specialists Map,” last updated March 26, 2020,
https://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/documents/27631.
20 For more information on mutual aid, see the DHS, NRF, p. 12. See also FEMA, National Incident Management
System Guideline for Mutual Aid, November 2017, p. 1, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1510231079545-
1fabc7af0e06d89d8c79c7b619e55a03/NIMS_Mutual_Aid_Guideline_20171105_508_compliant.pdf.
21 The Emergency Management Assistance Compact (EMAC) was congressionally ratified in H.J.Res. 193—Granting
the consent of Congress to the Emergency Management Assistance Compact (P.L. 104-321). For more information
about EMAC, including legislative text and EMAC’s governance structure, as well as eligible expenses and
documentation required for reimbursement, see the EMAC website, available at http://www.emacweb.org/ (hereinafter
EMAC).
Congressional Research Service

4

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

the EMAC legislation.22 Mutual aid agreements are a common and important source of assistance
during incidents that overwhelm local and state capacities.
State/Territory Government Assistance
All states and territories have either an agency or department that is responsible for emergency
management and/or homeland security.23 State-/territory-level emergency management agencies
are responsible for providing and coordinating assistance to local governments within their
jurisdictions, much in the way that FEMA is responsible for providing supplemental assistance to
states, territories, and Indian tribal governments. Though all states and territories have a legal
process for declaring a “state of emergency” (or synonymous incident), the processes for
declaring a state of emergency, and the powers and assistance authorized pursuant to such a
declaration, vary considerably.24
National Guard
Governors routinely use their state National Guard forces to assist with disaster response and
recovery. Although National Guard personnel can be called into federal service under certain
circumstances, they normally operate under the control of state and territorial governors.25 As part
of a state-/territory-level response to a disaster, governors have the authority to order state
National Guard personnel to perform full-time duty under state law. This is commonly referred to
as “state active duty.”26 In this capacity, National Guard personnel operate under the control of
their governor, are paid according to state law, can assist civil authorities in a wide variety of
tasks, and may be able to perform law enforcement functions.27 In response to a hurricane, for

22 See EMAC, “EMAC Legislation”; see also the statutes of the EMAC members (e.g., the Maryland General
Assembly publishes the state of Maryland’s statutes, available at http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/mgawebsite/Laws/
Statutes. The Public Safety Article for the State of Maryland, §14–701, states, “The Emergency Management
Assistance Compact is entered into with all other jurisdictions which adopt the Compact in a form substantially as the
Compact appears in §14-702 of this subtitle.” The state of Maryland Public Safety Article is available at
http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/2020RS/Statute_Web/gps/gps.pdf).
23 For a listing of state and territorial agencies, see FEMA’s website at https://www.fema.gov/emergency-management-
agencies.
24 Additional information regarding the state and territory decelerations of emergency, including the declaration process
and authorized powers, may be found in state/territory statutes (e.g., the Maryland General Assembly publishes the
state of Maryland’s statutes, available at http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/mgawebsite/Laws/Statutes. The Public Safety
Article for the State of Maryland, §14–107(a)(1) states “[i]f the Governor finds that an emergency has developed or is
impending due to any cause, the Governor shall declare a state of emergency by executive order or proclamation.”
There are additional statutes on terminating a state of emergency, and the powers and actions authorized pursuant to the
state-level declaration. The state of Maryland Public Safety Article is available at http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/2020RS/
Statute_Web/gps/gps.pdf).
25 The President may order National Guard forces to active duty (e.g., see 10 U.S.C. §§12301-12323 (active duty) and
§§12401-12408 (National Guard in federal service)).
26 As an example, the Maryland General Assembly publishes the state of Maryland’s statutes, available at
http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/mgawebsite/Laws/Statutes. The Public Safety Article for the State of Maryland, §13–
101(e)(1) defines “state active duty” as “military duty performed in service of the State by a unit or member of the
militia under orders issued by the Governor under Article II, §8 of the Maryland Constitution or §13-702 of this title.”
The state of Maryland Public Safety Article is available at http://mgaleg.maryland.gov/2020RS/Statute_Web/gps/
gps.pdf).
27 In this capacity, National Guard personnel are not subject to the restrictions of the Posse Comitatus Act. 18 U.S.C.
§1385. For more information, see CRS In Focus IF10539, Defense Primer: Legal Authorities for the Use of Military
Forces, by Jennifer K. Elsea.
Congressional Research Service

5

link to page 15 Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

example, National Guard personnel might perform tasks such as conducting search and rescue,
transporting and distributing supplies, setting up emergency shelters, clearing road debris, and
providing emergency medical care.28
Federal Disaster Declarations
If the capacities of the local, state, territorial, and tribal governments have been overwhelmed by
an incident, they may wish to request assistance from the federal government, primarily through
the Stafford Act.29 The Stafford Act authorizes the President to issue several types of declarations
to authorize federal supplemental assistance: (1) an “emergency declaration” (authorized under
Stafford Act Section 501); (2) a “major disaster declaration” (authorized under Stafford Act
Section 401); or (3) a Fire Management Assistance Grant (FMAG) (authorized under Stafford Act
Section 420).
Emergency declarations may authorize some specific forms of Public Assistance (PA) and
Individual Assistance (IA)30 but the range of assistance is more limited than assistance that is
made available under a major disaster declaration.31 Emergency declarations authorize federal
assistance that can help supplement the capabilities of state, territorial, and Indian tribal
governments to carry out essential services and activities to save lives, protect property, protect
public health and safety, or reduce or avert the threat of future damage.32 Emergency declarations
may be declared before an incident occurs to support efforts to save lives and prevent loss.33
The definition for a major disaster is more precise than an emergency declaration, and major
disasters may provide a broader range of assistance to state, territorial, Indian tribal, and local
governments; private, nonprofit organizations; and individuals and households.34 When the
President issues a major disaster declaration, states and localities, as well as certain private
nonprofit organizations, may be eligible (if so designated) to receive reimbursement through PA
for “emergency work” undertaken to save lives, protect property, public health, and safety, and
lessen or avert the threat of a catastrophe. Additionally, they may be eligible for “permanent
work” undertaken to repair, restore, reconstruct, or replace disaster-damaged public and eligible
private nonprofit facilities (e.g., public infrastructure, such as roads and buildings).35 A major

28 The NRF describes actions that the National Guard may perform. See DHS, NRF, p. 32.
29 Other types of federal declarations are described in the “Other Federal Declarations” section.
30 The Individuals and Households Program (IHP) is the only form of IA that may be authorized pursuant to an
emergency declaration under the Stafford Act (Stafford Act Section 408, 42 U.S.C. §5192(6)).
31 “The Disaster Declaration Process,” https://www.fema.gov/disaster-declaration-process.
32 Stafford Act Section 102(1), 42 U.S.C. §5122(1).
33 For example, Puerto Rico received an emergency declaration for Hurricane Maria on September 18, 2017, before
Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico (see FEMA, “Puerto Rico Hurricane Maria (EM-3391),”
https://www.fema.gov/disaster/3391). Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico on September 20, 2017 (see
Richard J. Pasch, Andrew B. Penny, and Robbie Berg, Tropical Cyclone Report: Hurricane Maria, National Hurricane
Center, AL 152017, February 14, 2019, p. 2, https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/AL152017_Maria.pdf).
34 Stafford Act Section 102(2), 42 U.S.C. §5122(2).
35 Assistance for these PA program is authorized under Stafford Act Sections 402, 403, 407, 418, 419, and 502; 42
U.S.C. §§5170a-5170b, 5173, 5185-86, 5192. See also 44 C.F.R. §206.220 for general eligibility for public assistance.
Per 44 C.F.R. §206.225(c) and (d), PA “emergency work” includes emergency communications and emergency
transportation authorized under Stafford Act Sections 418 and 419. FEMA’s Public Assistance guidance explains: “[a]
State, Territorial, Tribal, or local government may provide emergency communication services and public
transportation when existing systems are damaged to the extent vital functions of community life or incident response
are disrupted. The costs of these services are not eligible for reimbursement. However, FEMA may provide short-term
DFA [Direct Federal Assistance] for these services.” (FEMA, Public Assistance Program and Policy Guide (PAPPG),
Congressional Research Service

6

link to page 11 Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

disaster declaration may also include programs to provide aid to affected individuals and
households through the IA program. Assistance may include assistance for housing and for other
needs assistance through the Individuals and Households Program; crisis counseling; disaster
unemployment assistance; disaster legal services; and disaster case management services.36
Additionally, pursuant to a major disaster declaration the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program
(HMGP) may be authorized.37 The HMGP funds mitigation and resiliency projects, typically
across the entire state or territory.38 State, territorial, tribal, and local governments, as well as
certain private nonprofit organizations, may apply for measures that reduce loss of life or
property in future disasters or emergencies.39 A major disaster declaration may also authorize
other recovery programs, such as community disaster loans.40
The Stafford Act declaration process is described in the following section. There are also many
other types of federal declarations and determinations that may trigger additional authorities or
assistance separate from, or in conjunction with, the Stafford Act (e.g., the Small Business
Administration’s Disaster Loan Program).41
Table 1 lists the forms of assistance available pursuant to each type of declaration.

FP 104-009-2, April 2018, p. 61, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1525468328389-
4a038bbef9081cd7dfe7538e7751aa9c/PAPPG_3.1_508_FINAL_5-4-2018.pdf.)
36 Stafford Act Section 408 authorizes the Individuals and Households Program (42 U.S.C. §5174); Section 426
authorizes Disaster Case Management (42 U.S.C. §5189d); Section 416 authorizes the Crisis Counseling Assistance
and Training Program (42 U.S.C. §5183); Section 415 authorizes Disaster Legal Services (42 U.S.C. §5182); and
Section 410 authorizes Disaster Unemployment Assistance (42 U.S.C. §5177). The FEMA Individual Assistance
programs are described in the FEMA Individual Assistance Program and Policy Guide (IAPPG), FP 104-009-03,
March 2019, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1551713430046-1abf12182d2d5e622d16accb37c4d163/
IAPPG.pdf. For more information on FEMA’s Individual Assistance program, see CRS Report R46014, FEMA
Individual Assistance Programs: An Overview, by Elizabeth M. Webster.
37 The Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP) is authorized under Stafford Act Section 404 (42 U.S.C. §5170c).
38 Stafford Act Section 404, 42 U.S.C. §5170c. For more information on Hazard Mitigation Assistance, see CRS
Insight IN11187, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Hazard Mitigation Assistance, by Diane P. Horn.
See also FEMA, “Hazard Mitigation Grant Program,” https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1437513326617-
c124385de1b6061509f775a164c9aabd/FEMA_HMA_HMGP_tri_2015_508.pdf.
39 FEMA, “Hazard Mitigation Grant Program,” https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1437513326617-
c124385de1b6061509f775a164c9aabd/FEMA_HMA_HMGP_tri_2015_508.pdf.
40 Stafford Act Section 417, 42 U.S.C. §5184. For more information on community disaster loans, see CRS Insight
IN11106, Community Disaster Loans: Homeland Security Issues in the 116th Congress, by Michael H. Cecire.
41 For more information on the Small Business Administration’s (SBA’s) Disaster Loan Program, see CRS Report
R44412, SBA Disaster Loan Program: Frequently Asked Questions, by Bruce R. Lindsay.
Congressional Research Service

7

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

Table 1. Assistance Available Under Stafford Act Declarations

Emergency Declaration
Major Disaster Declaration
Public Assistance (PA)
Emergency Work
Emergency Work
Category A–Debris Removal
Category A–Debris Removal
Category B–Emergency Protective
Category B–Emergency Protective
Measures
Measures
Permanent Work
Category C–Roads and Bridges
Category D–Water Control
Facilities
Category E–Buildings and
Equipment
Category F–Utilities
Category G–Parks, Recreational,
Other
Individual Assistance (IA)
Individuals and Households
IHP
Program (IHP)
Crisis Counseling Program
Disaster Case Management
Disaster Unemployment Assistance
Disaster Legal Services
Disaster Supplemental Nutrition
Assistance Program
Hazard Mitigation Assistance
—
Hazard Mitigation Grant Program
(HMA)
Source: Developed by CRS based on the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s (FEMA’s) webpage on “The
Disaster Declaration Process,” available at https://www.fema.gov/disaster-declaration-process.
Stafford Act Declaration Process42
The federal government does not automatically provide assistance to local, state, territorial, and
Indian tribal governments when an incident43 occurs. In most cases, the governor or tribal chief
executive requests that the President declare an emergency or major disaster and authorize
various types of assistance (e.g., Public Assistance and Individual Assistance).44 This is because

42 For more information, see CRS Report R43784, FEMA’s Disaster Declaration Process: A Primer, by Bruce R.
Lindsay.
43 44 C.F.R. §206.32(e) defines an incident as “[a]ny condition which meets the definition of major disaster or
emergency as set forth in §206.2 which causes damage or hardship that may result in a Presidential declaration of a
major disaster or an emergency.”
44 44 C.F.R. §§206.35, 206.36, 206.40(a); FEMA, “The Disaster Declaration Process”; FEMA, “FAQs: Current Process
for Tribal Governments to Request a Presidential Declaration,” last updated May 24, 2019,
https://www.fema.gov/frequently-asked-questions-current-process-tribal-governments-request-presidential-declaration.
For more information about the disaster declaration process, see CRS Report R43784, FEMA’s Disaster Declaration
Process: A Primer, by Bruce R. Lindsay. Presidential declarations of emergency and major disaster include the areas
designated as being eligible for federal assistance, as well as the types of assistance the designated areas are eligible to
receive (44 C.F.R. §206.2(a)(6)). Additional designated areas and available assistance are published in the Federal
Register and listed on FEMA’s “Disasters” website (FEMA, “Disasters,” https://www.fema.gov/disasters). A
designated area is “[a]ny emergency or major disaster-affected portion of a State which has been determined eligible
for Federal assistance.” (44 C.F.R. §206.2(a)(6)).
Congressional Research Service

8

link to page 12

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

federal assistance is intended to supplement—not supplant—local, state, territorial, or Indian
tribal government response and recovery efforts.45 In making such a request, the governor or
tribal chief executive must demonstrate that they are unable to effectively respond to the incident
without federal assistance.46 Figure 1 depicts the Stafford Act Declaration Process.
Figure 1. Stafford Act Declaration Process

Source: Developed by CRS based on the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s (FEMA’s) webpage on “The
Disaster Declaration Process,” available at https://www.fema.gov/disaster-declaration-process.
The governor or tribal chief executive’s request for a presidential declaration of emergency or
major disaster must include information about the actions and resources that have been or will be
committed, and an estimate of the amount and severity of the disaster-caused damages.47 For all
but the most catastrophic events, this process is deliberative and involves accumulating
information from several sources during the Preliminary Damage Assessment (PDA) process.48

45 The governor or tribal chief executive’s request must document that the “situation is of such severity and magnitude
that effective response is beyond the capabilities of the State and affected local governments” and that supplemental
federal assistance is necessary (44 C.F.R. §§206.35 and 206.36). To justify a declaration of emergency, supplemental
federal assistance must be needed to “save lives and to protect property, public health and safety, or to lessen or avert
the threat of a disaster” (44 C.F.R. §206.3). To justify a declaration of major disaster, federal assistance must be needed
to “supplement the efforts and available resources of the State, local governments, disaster relief organizations, and
compensation by insurance for disaster-related losses” (44 C.F.R. §206.36).
46 44 C.F.R. §§206.35 and 206.36.
47 For a list and description of information requirements to accompany a governor or tribal chief executive’s request for
an emergency declaration and a major disaster declaration, see 44 C.F.R. §206.35 and 44 C.F.R. §206.36, respectively.
48 For example, see the FEMA, “Request for Presidential Disaster Declaration: Major Disaster or Emergency,” form,
OMB Control Number 1660-0009, Expires 09/30/2019, available at https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/
1512409550714-752b7004a7c74c67a485a36551d7c889/FEMAForm010-0-13PresidentialDeclarationRequest.pdf (note
that the form expiration date has passed, but this is the form linked to on FEMA’s “Request for Presidential Disaster
Declaration Major or Emergency” webpage, available at https://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/documents/
28122). For more information on the Preliminary Damage Assessment (PDA) process, see FEMA, “Preliminary
Damage Assessments,” last updated December 6, 2019, https://www.fema.gov/preliminary-damage-assessments; see
also CRS Report R44977, Preliminary Damage Assessments for Major Disasters: Overview, Analysis, and Policy
Observations, by Bruce R. Lindsay.
Congressional Research Service

9

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

If it is determined that the incident exceeds the state and local government’s capacity, the
governor/chief executive requests a Joint PDA.49 The Joint PDA team includes at least one state
or tribal official; at least one federal official, typically a representative from the appropriate
FEMA regional office; and a local official familiar with the area.50 In some cases, it may also
include representatives from other federal agencies or voluntary relief organizations.51
A PDA is required in order to request a Stafford Act declaration, except in certain instances.
According to FEMA regulation, “the requirement for a joint PDA may be waived for those
incidents of unusual severity and magnitude that do not require field damage assessments to
determine the need for supplemental federal assistance.”52 However, even when the PDA process
is waived or expedited, initial federal assistance is typically limited, and subsequent PDA
processes are required to determine what additional assistance is necessary.53 FEMA uses the
Damage Assessment Operations Manual, as well as other guidance to help guide the process of
gathering information about the incident and evaluate the governor/chief executive’s request for a
declaration under the Stafford Act.54 Regulations require that, at the close of the PDA process,
participants reconcile any differences in their findings.55
Once the PDA has been completed, the governor/chief executive may submit a request for a
major disaster declaration. The request is submitted to the appropriate FEMA Regional
Administrator who, in turn, acknowledges the request, summarizes the findings, analyzes the
data, and submits a recommendation to FEMA Headquarters. Specific factors are considered by
FEMA when evaluating the need for supplemental federal assistance under the Public Assistance
and Individual Assistance programs pursuant to a request for a major disaster declaration.56
FEMA provides a recommendation to the President, and the decision to grant a declaration
request is at the President’s discretion.57 The authority to designate assistance types to be made
available is delegated to the FEMA Assistant Administrator for the Disaster Assistance
Directorate.58 It is important to note that although FEMA evaluates PDA findings and provides a
recommendation, the President has the sole authority to issue a declaration or deny a request for
federal assistance under the Stafford Act.59

49 Stafford Act Section 401, 42 U.S.C. §5170; see also FEMA, Damage Assessment Operations Manual: A Guide to
Assessing Damage and Impact, April 5, 2016, p. 6, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1459972926996-
a31eb90a2741e86699ef34ce2069663a/PDAManualFinal6.pdf (hereinafter FEMA, Damage Assessment Manual).
FEMA released a new FEMA Preliminary Damage Assessment Guide in May 2020 that supersedes the 2016 Damage
Assessment Operations Manual, and is applicable to any PDA that occurs on or after June 8, 2020. See FEMA,
Preliminary Damage Assessment Guide, May 2020, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1590686343169-
3e382d1466ac2d0bb150d994ddce48e9/Preliminary_Damage_Assessment_Guide_5_26.pdf.
50 44 C.F.R. §206.33(b); see also FEMA, Damage Assessment Manual, p. 6.
51 FEMA, Damage Assessment Manual, p. 6.
52 44 C.F.R. §206.33(d); see also 44 C.F.R. §206.36(d).
53 For examples of expedited declarations, see the FEMA “Preliminary Damage Assessment Reports” webpage,
available at http://www.fema.gov/preliminary-damage-assessment-reports.
54 FEMA, Damage Assessment Manual, and FEMA, Individual Assistance Declarations Factors Guidance, June 2019,
https://www.regulations.gov/document?D=FEMA-2014-0005-0071 (this Individual Assistance (IA) guidance was
published after the IA factors were updated in June 2019.
55 44 C.F.R. §206.33(c).
56 44 C.F.R. §206.48.
57 44 C.F.R. §206.38.
58 44 C.F.R. §206.40(a).
59 See 44 C.F.R. §206.48 and, for example, see FEMA, “Factors Considered When Evaluating a Request for IA,” 84
Federal Register 10633.
Congressional Research Service

10

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

Unilateral Declarations of Emergency Under the Stafford Act
The federal government may also provide assistance without a request by the governor or chief
executive in more limited circumstances. Section 501(b) of the Stafford Act allows the President
to unilaterally declare an emergency for certain emergencies involving federal primary
responsibility.60 Most recently, and significantly, President Donald J. Trump made a nationwide
emergency declaration for coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) using the authority in Stafford Act
Section 501(b) on the grounds that
the entire country is now facing a significant public health emergency ... [and] [o]nly the
Federal Government can provide the necessary coordination to address a pandemic of this
national size and scope.... It is the preeminent responsibility of the Federal Government to
take action to stem a nationwide pandemic that has its origins abroad, which implicates its
authority to regulate matters related to interstate matters and foreign commerce and to
conduct the foreign relations of the United States.61
Besides the COVID-19 example,62 a presidential declaration of emergency under the Stafford Act
most frequently occurs because the incident involves an issue or hazard for which, under the
Constitution or a federal law, the President or other federal authority has exclusive or preeminent
responsibility and authority.63
Declined Requests for Emergency Major Disaster Declarations
In some cases a gubernatorial or chief executive’s request for a major disaster or emergency
declaration may be declined by the President. For example, the President may conclude the
incident does not meet the definition of a major disaster or emergency under the Stafford Act,64 or
it may be determined that the incident lacks the severity and magnitude to warrant a declaration
and as a result does not exceed the state’s capacity to respond without assistance from the federal
government.65 If a declaration request is denied, the decision can be appealed once.66 Appeals

60 42 U.S.C. §5191(b).
61 Letter from Donald J. Trump, President of the United States, to Acting Secretary Wolf, Secretary Mnuchin, Secretary
Azar, and Administrator Gaynor, March 13, 2020, https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/
LetterFromThePresident.pdf.
62 For more information on the Stafford Act declarations for COVID-19, see CRS Report R46326, Stafford Act
Declarations for COVID-19 FAQ, by Elizabeth M. Webster, Erica A. Lee, and William L. Painter.
63 See, primarily, Stafford Act Section 501(b), 42 U.S.C. §5191(b). Most notably, this situation arises when the area
affected by the disaster is on federal property (e.g., in national waters, lands, parks, or military installations) or when
the Federal Bureau of Investigation becomes the lead federal law enforcement agency in response to a terrorism
incident.
64 The Stafford Act defines emergencies and major disasters in Section 102(1) and 102(2), respectively, 42 U.S.C.
§§5122(1) and 5122(2). For example, former Michigan Governor Rick Snyder’s request for a major disaster declaration
for the water contamination in Flint was denied on the basis that it did not meet the Stafford Act’s definition of a major
disaster (see a copy of the FEMA denial letter in “Appendix. Examples of Request and Denial Letters, Figure A-1.
FEMA Denial Letter: Flint Water Contamination Incident,” CRS Report R44801, Stafford Act Assistance and Acts of
Terrorism, by Bruce R. Lindsay).
65 For examples of denied declaration requests, see the FEMA “Preliminary Damage Assessment Reports” webpage,
available at http://www.fema.gov/preliminary-damage-assessment-reports. For example, Nebraska’s request for a
major disaster for severe storms, tornadoes, straight-line winds, and flooding was denied on the basis that “the impact
from this event is not of the severity and magnitude that warrants a major disaster declaration” (FEMA, “Preliminary
Damage Assessment Report: Nebraska—Severe Storms, Tornadoes, Straight-line Winds, and Flooding Denial of
Appeal,” January 7, 2020, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1579727282421-
bda94d64a4102764deeb9b10d8172657/PDAReportAppealDenialNE.pdf).
66 44 C.F.R. §206.46(a).
Congressional Research Service

11

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

must be made within 30 days after the date of the letter denying the request, and the appeal must
include any additional information that may not have been included in the first request along with
the justification for reconsideration.67 The appeal must be submitted to the President through the
appropriate FEMA Regional Administrator.68
If the request or the appeal is denied, the governor may consider requesting a disaster declaration
from the SBA Administrator.69 The thresholds used to make determinations for SBA disaster
assistance are generally lower than the ones used to determine major disaster assistance.70 It
should be noted, however, that governmental entities are not eligible for SBA disaster loans. They
are primarily for individuals and businesses.71
Fire Management Assistance Grants
In addition to the emergency and major disaster declarations, there is a unique quasi-declaration
“for the mitigation, management, and control of any fire on public or private forest land or
grassland that threatens such destruction as would constitute a major disaster.”72 In these cases,
FEMA, which has been delegated authority by the President, may declare the incident eligible for
a Fire Management Assistance Grant (FMAG) as authorized by Section 420 of the Stafford Act.73
Once issued, the FMAG declaration authorizes various forms of federal assistance, such as the
provision of equipment, personnel, and grants to state, local, and tribal governments for the
control, management, and mitigation of any fire on public or private forest land or grassland.74
The FMAG is intended to mitigate the effects of a wildfire and prevent it from becoming a major
disaster.75 Additionally, when an FMAG is approved, regardless of whether a major disaster is
declared, the state, territory, or Indian tribal government may be eligible for assistance through
the Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP).76
Other Federal Declarations
There are numerous other types of declarations and designation authorities that could be used by
the federal government either to activate unique authorities or to provide additional assistance to
affected communities. They include, but are not limited to:

67 44 C.F.R. §206.46(a).
68 44 C.F.R. §206.46(a).
69 The SBA Administrator is authorized under the Small Business Act to issue an “Agency” or “SBA declaration” that
makes SBA disaster loans available for homeowners, renters, businesses, and nonprofit organizations (13 C.F.R.
§123.3(a)(3)). For more information on SBA declarations, see CRS Report R45238, FEMA and SBA Disaster
Assistance for Individuals and Households: Application Processes, Determinations, and Appeals, by Bruce R. Lindsay
and Elizabeth M. Webster.
70 13 C.F.R. §123.3(a)(3).
71 For more information on SBA disaster loans for individuals and businesses, see CRS Report R45238, FEMA and
SBA Disaster Assistance for Individuals and Households: Application Processes, Determinations, and Appeals, by
Bruce R. Lindsay and Elizabeth M. Webster.
72 Stafford Act Section 420(a), 42 U.S.C. §5187(a).
73 Stafford Act Section 420(a), 42 U.S.C. §5187(a); 44 C.F.R. §204.21.
74 44 C.F.R. §204.42 lists the eligible costs for Fire Management Assistance Grants (FMAGs).
75 For more information on FMAGs, see CRS Report R43738, Fire Management Assistance Grants: Frequently Asked
Questions, coordinated by Bruce R. Lindsay.
76 Stafford Act Section 420(d), 42 U.S.C. §5187(d).
Congressional Research Service

12

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

 a presidential declaration of a “national emergency” pursuant to the National
Emergencies Act (50 U.S.C. §§1601 et seq.) that specifies the federal authorities
the crisis requires;77
 a determination by the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) of a
public health emergency (PHE) pursuant to Section 319 of the Public Health
Service Act (PHSA, 42 U.S.C. §247d);78
 various disaster declarations from the Administrator of the Small Business
Administration (SBA);79 and
 various disaster declarations and designations from the U.S. Department of
Agriculture.80
Selected Examples of Federal Assistance Programs
Stafford Act Assistance Programs
If an emergency or major disaster is declared under the Stafford Act, the three principal forms of
federal assistance may be available:
 Public Assistance (PA), which provides grants to state, territorial, Indian tribal,
and local governments and certain private nonprofit organizations to provide
emergency protective services, conduct debris removal operations, and repair or
replace damaged public infrastructure.81 Although certain nonprofit organizations
may be eligible for these grants, for-profit businesses are not.82
 Individual Assistance (IA), which provides direct aid to affected individuals and
households, can take the form of housing assistance,83 other needs assistance,
crisis counseling, case management services, legal services, and disaster
unemployment assistance.84 There are limitations on the amount of financial

77 For more information on declarations of national emergency under the National Emergencies Act (NEA), including
an example of declarations of national emergency under the NEA and Stafford Act and how they differ, see CRS
Insight IN11264, Presidential Declarations of Emergency for COVID-19: NEA and Stafford Act, by L. Elaine Halchin
and Elizabeth M. Webster.
78 For more information, see U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ (HHS’s) website on its authorities at
https://www.phe.gov/Preparedness/support/secauthority/Pages/default.aspx.
79 The SBA Administrator is authorized under the Small Business Act to issue an “Agency” or “SBA declaration” that
makes SBA disaster loans available for homeowners, renters, businesses, and nonprofit organizations (13 C.F.R.
§123.3(a)(3)). For more information, see CRS Report R41309, The SBA Disaster Loan Program: Overview and
Possible Issues for Congress, by Bruce R. Lindsay.
80 For more information on agricultural emergencies, see CRS Report RS21212, Agricultural Disaster Assistance, by
Megan Stubbs.
81 For more information on the Public Assistance (PA) program, see CRS In Focus IF11529, A Brief Overview
of FEMA’s Public Assistance Program, by Erica A. Lee.
82 Assistance for these PA program is authorized under Stafford Act Sections 402, 403, 407, 418, 419, and 502; 42
U.S.C. §§5170a-5170b, 5173, 5185-86, 5192. For more on FEMA’s PA grant program, see FEMA, “Public Assistance:
Local, State, Tribal and Private Non-Profit,” https://www.fema.gov/public-assistance-local-state-tribal-and-non-profit.
83 For more information on FEMA housing assistance, see CRS Report R44619, FEMA Disaster Housing: The
Individuals and Households Program—Implementation and Potential Issues for Congress, by Shawn Reese.
84 For more information on the Individual Assistance (IA) programs, see CRS Report R46014, FEMA Individual
Assistance Programs: An Overview, by Elizabeth M. Webster; see also FEMA, “Individual Disaster Assistance,”
Congressional Research Service

13

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

assistance an individual or household may receive. Assistance for housing-related
needs may not exceed $35,500 (FY2020; adjusted annually),85 and assistance for
Other Needs Assistance (ONA) may not exceed $35,500 (FY2020; adjusted
annually).86 The exceptions are that financial assistance to rent alternate housing
accommodations87 and financial assistance for accessibility-related real and
personal property costs are not subject to the cap.88
 Hazard Mitigation Assistance (HMA), which funds mitigation and resiliency
projects and programs, and may be available for the entire state if requested.89
Mitigation projects can include the construction of safe rooms, buyouts of
frequently flooded properties, and retrofitting of facilities.90
The forms of assistance authorized by an emergency or major disaster declaration may vary by
the designated areas, per the declaration (which can be amended to request additional forms of
relief).91 The Federal-State Agreement (or FEMA-Tribal Agreement), which is signed by both the
governor/chief executive and FEMA, “states the understandings, commitments, and conditions
for assistance under which FEMA disaster assistance shall be provided.... ” and “describes ... the
incident period for which assistance will be made available, the type and extent of the Federal
assistance to be made available, and ... the commitment of the State and local government(s) with
respect to the amount of funds to be expended in alleviating damage and suffering caused by the
major disaster or emergency.... ”92

https://www.fema.gov/individual-disaster-assistance. For additional information on disaster unemployment assistance,
see CRS Report RS22022, Disaster Unemployment Assistance (DUA), by Julie M. Whittaker.
85 §1212 of the Disaster Recovery Reform Act of 2018 (DRRA), P.L. 115-254, as it amends §408(h)(1) of the Stafford
Act, P.L. 93-288, as amended, 42 U.S.C. §5174(h)(1); FEMA, “Notice of Maximum Amount of Assistance Under the
Individuals and Households Program,” 84 Federal Register 55324, October 16, 2019, https://www.govinfo.gov/
content/pkg/FR-2019-10-16/pdf/2019-22471.pdf (hereinafter FEMA, “Notice of Maximum Amount of Assistance”). It
is adjusted annually to reflect changes in the Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers published by the
Department of Labor (42 U.S.C. §5174(h)(3)).
86 §1212 of DRRA, P.L. 115-254, as it amends §408(h)(2) of the Stafford Act, P.L. 93-288, as amended, 42 U.S.C.
§5174(h)(2); FEMA, “Notice of Maximum Amount of Assistance.” Additionally, ONA assistance may be somewhat
limited because some ONA-eligible items and amounts available to be awarded are predetermined by FEMA and the
state, territorial, or Indian tribal government.
87 §1212 of DRRA, P.L. 115-254, as it amends §408(h)(1) of the Stafford Act, P.L. 93-288, as amended, 42 U.S.C.
§5174(h)(1).
88 §1212 of DRRA, P.L. 115-254, as it amends §§408(h)(4)(A) and (B) of the Stafford Act, P.L. 93-288, as amended,
42 U.S.C. §§5174(h)(4)(A) and (B).
89 FEMA, “The Hazard Mitigation Grant Program Guide for State/Local Governments,” https://www.fema.gov/hazard-
mitigation-grant-program-guide-state/local-governments.
90 For more on the various Hazard Mitigation Assistance (HMA) programs, see Federal Emergency Management
Agency, The Hazard Mitigation Assistance Grant Programs, 2015, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/
1441133724295-0933f57e7ad4618d89debd1ddc6562d3/FEMA_HMA_Grants_4pg_2015_508.pdf.
91 Some forms of PA and IA may be available when the President has declared an emergency, and PA, IA, and HMA
may be available when the President has declared a major disaster (44 C.F.R. §206.40(a)); see also FEMA, “The
Disaster Declaration Process,” https://www.fema.gov/disaster-declaration-process). After the President declares an
emergency or major disaster, the governor or chief executive may request that the declaration be amended to include
additional types of assistance (44 C.F.R. §206.40(c)). FEMA can approve such a request (44 C.F.R. §206.40(c)).
92 44 C.F.R. §206.44(a) and (b).
Congressional Research Service

14

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

Other Federal Assistance Programs
The majority of federal financial disaster assistance is made available from FEMA under the
authority of the Stafford Act. In addition to financial assistance that may be available through the
Stafford Act, however, there are a number of other programs not administered by the U.S.
Department of Homeland Security (DHS) or FEMA that can provide disaster assistance in certain
circumstances. They include through federal programs provided by the Small Business
Administration (SBA), the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the
Department of Transportation (DOT), the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), and the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), among other federal programs. Five significant programs
include the following:
 SBA Disaster Loan Program: The SBA provides federally subsidized loans to
repair or replace homes, personal property, or businesses that sustained uninsured
damages following a disaster. The SBA Disaster Loan Program also provides
subsidized loans to businesses that suffered economic loss as a result of a
disaster.
 HUD Community Development Block Grant Disaster Recovery (CDBG-DR)
Program: These funds can be used to meet a wide range of unmet disaster needs,
but the program currently requires a supplemental appropriation to accommodate
the high cost of disaster relief.93
 DOT Federal-Aid Highway (FHWA) Emergency Relief (ER) Program: The ER
program is the major source of grant funds for the repair and reconstruction of
roads on the federal highway system that have suffered serious damage as a result
of either (1) a natural disaster over a wide area, such as a flood, hurricane, tidal
wave, earthquake, tornado, severe storm, or landslide; or (2) a catastrophic
failure from any external cause.94
 USDA Agriculture and Rural Assistance: There are multiple programs provided
by USDA that provide food, housing, and financial assistance, primarily to
agricultural and rural communities.95
 USACE Emergency Assistance: The USACE provides assistance to repair
damaged flood control works (e.g., levees) and federally constructed hurricane or
shore protection projects that participate in the agency’s Rehabilitation and
Inspection Program.96 The USACE has an emergency response authority (33

93 For more on how Community Development Block Grants (CDBG) can be used during disaster relief, see CRS
Report RL33330, Community Development Block Grant Funds in Disaster Relief and Recovery, by Eugene Boyd. The
program website for Community Development Block Grant Disaster Recovery (CDBG-DR) is available at
https://www.hudexchange.info/programs/cdbg-dr/.
94 For more on the Federal-Aid Highway (FHWA) Emergency Relief (ER) program and its comparable program for
transit, see CRS Report R45298, Emergency Relief for Disaster-Damaged Roads and Public Transportation Systems,
by Robert S. Kirk and William J. Mallett.
95 For more, see the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA’s) fact sheet on their programs (USDA, “Fact Sheet:
USDA Programs That Assist Individuals and Small Businesses: USDA Assistance Programs—Disaster,” updated
March 9, 2017, https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fact-sheet-usda-programs-assist-individuals-small-
businesses_1.pdf. For more information, see CRS Report RS21212, Agricultural Disaster Assistance, by Megan
Stubbs, and CRS Report RL33816, Broadband Loan and Grant Programs in the USDA’s Rural Utilities Service, by
Lennard G. Kruger and Alyssa R. Casey.
96 For more information on the Rehabilitation and Inspection Program, see CRS Report R41243, Army Corps of
Engineers: Water Resource Authorizations, Appropriations, and Activities, by Nicole T. Carter and Charles V. Stern.
Congressional Research Service

15

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

U.S.C. §701n) under which it performs flood-fighting, and other emergency
response (e.g., emergency water supplies) and disaster assistance focused on
actions to save lives and protect improved property.97 The USACE also has
limited authorities to assist with select activities during drought.98
Other Federal Assistance
Many federal departments and agencies have standing authorities to assist tribal, state, and local
governments in a variety of ways. For example, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) may provide a range of technical assistance on issues relating to public health concerns
following a disaster. Further, other federal agencies may be able to waive certain regulations and
requirements in times of disaster to aid the response and recovery effort. For example, the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), working with the Department of Energy (DOE), can
issue emergency waivers of certain fuel standards in affected areas.99
Additionally, under a Stafford Act major disaster declaration, the President, the FEMA
Administrator, and the FEMA Regional Administrator may
direct any Federal agency, with or without reimbursement, to utilize its authorities and the
resources granted to it under Federal law (including personnel, equipment, supplies,
facilities, and managerial, technical, and advisory services) in support of State and local
assistance response and recovery efforts, including precautionary evacuations.100
If another federal agency is called upon to assist during a disaster using this authority, typically
they receive a mission assignment from FEMA and are reimbursed through the Disaster Relief
Fund.101 Federal government agencies also have numerous authorized deployable federal assets
that can support the immediate response to disaster.102
The federal government or a federal asset may also provide immediate assistance, primarily to
prevent the direct loss of life or significant property damage, without the request rising through
the “normal” request procedures.103 For instance, the Department of Defense (DOD), through its
Defense Support of Civil Authorities (DSCA) regulations and policies, authorizes local DOD

97 Most of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ (USACE’s) disaster response work generally is funded through
supplemental appropriations provided directly to it. Until supplemental appropriations are provided, Congress has
provided the USACE with authority to transfer money from ongoing USACE projects to emergency operations (33
U.S.C. §701n). For more on USACE-related supplemental appropriations, see CRS Report R42841, Army Corps
Supplemental Appropriations: History, Trends, and Policy Issues, by Nicole T. Carter and Charles V. Stern.
98 For example, 33 U.S.C. §549a.
99 For more information, see Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA’s) webpage on “Fuel Waivers” at
https://www.epa.gov/enforcement/fuel-waivers.
100 Stafford Act Section 402(1), 42 U.S.C. §5170a.
101 FEMA has been delegated the authority to issue mission assignments to other federal agencies per 44 C.F.R.
§206.2(a)(18). Mission assignments rely on the authority of the President to direct federal agencies to support disaster
response and recovery operations, namely found in Stafford Act Sections 402, 403, and 502 (42 U.S.C. §§5170a,
5170b, and 5192). See FEMA, Policy: Mission Assignments, FP 104-010-2, August 17, 2018, https://www.fema.gov/
media-library/assets/documents/185839.
102 For more on these assets, see CRS Report R43560, Deployable Federal Assets Supporting Domestic Disaster
Response Operations: Summary and Considerations for Congress, coordinated by Jared T. Brown.
103 See, primarily, Stafford Act Section 502(a)(8), 42 U.S.C. §5192(a)(8). This authority allows the federal assistance to
be provided “where necessary to save lives, prevent human suffering, or mitigate severe damage, which may be
provided in the absence of a specific request.... ”
Congressional Research Service

16

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

officials to provide immediate assistance without a formal request rising through the state and
lead federal officials.104
Congressional Activity in Disasters
Federal disaster assistance requires a relationship between the federal, state, territorial, tribal, and
local governments. Congressional input and support, such as the distribution of information, can
aid response and recovery efforts. As a disaster situation unfolds, congressional offices may wish
to take the following steps during the pre-declaration period:
 Encourage individual and household planning through websites such as
Ready.gov, available at http://www.ready.gov, which provide pre-disaster
planning advice.
 Establish a working relationship with the state/territorial/tribal emergency
management office to understand the most valuable contributions that the office
can make. The lead agency for each state can be found at https://www.fema.gov/
emergency-management-agencies.
 Learn about the types of mutual aid agreements in place for the district/state with
neighboring communities by reaching out to state/territory/tribe’s lead agency for
emergency management.
 Consider a letter of support for the governor/chief executive’s request for a
declaration by framing the problems confronted by the state/territory/tribe and
local governments, and the importance of specific federal, supplemental
assistance.
 Provide input to the PDA teams, through state, territorial, tribal, and local
officials, regarding pockets of need or constituents who have noted problem areas
that should be reviewed, as well as the incident period for which assistance will
be made available. Help to manage the expectations of residents by explaining
the process and the potential assistance, as well as eligibility requirements and
programmatic limitations.
If a declaration is approved by the President, congressional offices can then:
 Establish their relationship with FEMA/DHS congressional liaisons to obtain
accurate and timely information, both at the headquarters level and in the field at
the Joint Field Office (JFO) level.
 Consider publicizing the online process for applying for many federal assistance
programs as described at DisasterAssistance.gov, available at
https://www.disasterassistance.gov/.
 If needed, provide suggestions to FEMA/DHS on potential locations for Disaster
Recovery Centers (DRCs), and for possible sites for Mobile Disaster Recovery
Centers. DRCs are typically staffed by FEMA and other federal agencies, as well
as state/territorial/tribal and local government agencies and voluntary
organizations, and they provide citizens with the opportunity for face-to-face
sessions with recovery staff. There are also online and telephone options to help
disaster survivors seek assistance.

104 This authority is called the “immediate response authority.” See 32 C.F.R. §185.4(g).
Congressional Research Service

17

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

 Work with FEMA/DHS to get an accurate listing of communities that are
participating in the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) and those that are
either sanctioned, or have chosen not to participate.
 Consider publicizing the “Applicants Briefing” to local governments and
nongovernmental organizations that sustained damage from the incident. This
briefing is the session in which FEMA staff explain the PA program (i.e.,
emergency and permanent work that may be eligible for reimbursement)
regulations and policies to local officials and potential applicants.
 Engage the State Hazard Mitigation Officer (SHMO) to understand the
state/territory’s plan for mitigation, the priorities it has established, and the
timeline of its implementation. FEMA’s website lists the SHMOs at
https://www.fema.gov/state-hazard-mitigation-officers.
 Be cognizant of the financial status of the Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) that funds
the Stafford Act programs as well as other missions assigned to other
departments and agencies to carry out response and recovery missions.
Depending on the severity of the disaster and existing accounting balances, the
Administration may request, and Congress could act on, legislation to provide
supplemental appropriations to the DRF and other disaster assistance program
accounts.105
Congress also plays a critical role by providing supplemental appropriations to fund Stafford Act
assistance. Further, Congress can help improve the delivery of supplemental emergency
management assistance by passing legislation to support needed emergency management reform
and conducting agency oversight. For example, Congress passed the Disaster Recovery Reform
Act of 2018 (DRRA, Division D of P.L. 115-254), which was enacted on October 5, 2018.106
DRRA is the most comprehensive reform of FEMA’s disaster assistance programs since the
passage of the Sandy Recovery Improvement Act of 2013 (SRIA, Division B of P.L. 113-2) and
the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 (PKEMRA, P.L. 109-295). DRRA
focuses on improving pre-disaster planning and mitigation, response, and recovery, and
increasing FEMA accountability. As such, it amends many sections of the Stafford Act and it also
includes new standalone authorities. In addition to passing DRRA, Congress is actively working
to ensure FEMA completes the implementation actions and requirements imposed by DRRA,
including related to making necessary changes to policies and regulations.107 To accomplish this,
DRRA requires FEMA to report to Congress;108 and congressional committees, such as the House
Transportation and Infrastructure Subcommittee on Economic Development, Public Buildings,
and Emergency Management, have conducted hearings on the subject of DRRA
implementation.109

105 For more information on the Disaster Relief Fund, see CRS Report R45484, The Disaster Relief Fund: Overview
and Issues, by William L. Painter.
106 For more information on the Disaster Recovery Reform Act of 2018, see CRS Report R45819, The Disaster
Recovery Reform Act of 2018 (DRRA): A Summary of Selected Statutory Provisions, coordinated by Elizabeth M.
Webster and Bruce R. Lindsay.
107 FEMA, Disaster Recovery Reform Act (DRRA) Annual Report, October 2019, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-
data/1576858019956-8ad76980a61611d59089ba4f88b2f1e1/DRRAAnnualReport.pdf (hereinafter FEMA, DRRA
Annual Report); see also FEMA, “Disaster Recovery Reform Act of 2018,” last updated March 10, 2020,
https://www.fema.gov/disaster-recovery-reform-act-2018.
108 FEMA, DRRA Annual Report, p. 2.
109 U.S. Congress, House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure, Subcommittee on Economic Development,
Congressional Research Service

18

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

Where to Obtain Further Information
There are several available online sources that provide the most immediate disaster response
information, including as follows:
 Current Stafford Act declarations: https://www.fema.gov/disasters.
 FEMA news releases: http://www.fema.gov/news-releases.
 FEMA also maintains a blog, a Facebook page, and a Twitter feed with the latest
information on disasters: http://blog.fema.gov/, http://www.facebook.com/
FEMA, and https://twitter.com/fema, respectively.
 Congressional staff may also request to be added to the distribution lists for
FEMA’s Office of External Affairs, Congressional and Intergovernmental Affairs
Division, including to receive:
 the FEMA Daily Operations Briefing, which provides information regarding
current operations, including updates on active response efforts, forecast
information, the status of joint PDAs, and declaration requests in process, as
well as the national FEMA common operating picture; and
 disaster-specific information (e.g., Congressional Advisories may be released
for specific disasters).
Sources of information on the federal emergency management process and policies:
 How citizens can prepare for disasters: http://www.ready.gov/.
 National Preparedness Policy and the National Planning Frameworks:
http://www.fema.gov/national-planning-frameworks.
 National Incident Management System: http://www.fema.gov/nims/.
Sources of information on disaster assistance programs:
 How citizens and local governments can receive disaster assistance:
http://www.disasterassistance.gov/.
 Background on all federal assistance programs: https://beta.sam.gov/.
Sources of scientific information on select natural hazards:
 Relating to hurricanes: http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/.
 Relating to earthquakes: http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/.
 Current flood and drought maps: http://waterwatch.usgs.gov/new/.
 Current severe weather warnings, including tornados, thunderstorms, and
flooding: http://www.spc.noaa.gov/products/wwa/.

Public Buildings, and Emergency Management, Disaster Preparedness: DRRA Implementation and FEMA Readiness,
116th Cong., 1st sess., May 22, 2019.
Congressional Research Service

19

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

Appendix. Federal Guidance and Frameworks
The National Preparedness System
The Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 (PKEMRA, P.L. 109-295),
enacted October 4, 2006, mandated that the President develop a national preparedness goal and a
national preparedness system to “prepare the Nation for all hazards, including natural disasters,
acts of terrorism, and other man-made disasters.”110 On March 30, 2011, former President Barack
Obama issued Presidential Policy Directive 8: National Preparedness (PPD-8), establishing the
National Preparedness System (NPS).111 Consistent with PKEMRA,112 the purpose of PPD-8 was
to:
strength[en] the security and resilience of the United States through systemic preparation
for the threats that pose the greatest risk to the security of the Nation, including acts of
terrorism, cyber attacks, pandemics, and catastrophic natural disasters.113
The NPS is “an integrated set of guidance, programs, and processes that will enable the Nation to
meet the national preparedness goal.”114 It is designed to help “ensure the Nation’s ability to
prevent, respond to, recover from, and mitigate against natural disasters, acts of terrorism, and
other man-made disasters.”115 In brief, the NPS and its many component policies embody the
strategic vision and planning of the federal government, with input from the whole community,116
as it relates to preparing the nation for all hazards. The NPS also establishes methods for
achieving the nation’s desired level of preparedness for both federal and nonfederal partners by
identifying the core capabilities.117 A key component of the NPS is the National Incident
Management System (NIMS) that provides a consistent approach for the whole community to
work “together seamlessly and manage incidents involving all threats and hazards—regardless of
cause, size, location, or complexity—in order to reduce loss of life, property and harm to the
environment.”118 Further, as directed by PPD-8, the NPS is supported by numerous strategic

110 Section 642 of the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of 2006 (PKEMRA, P.L. 109-295), 6 U.S.C.
§742.
111 White House, Presidential Policy Directive 8: National Preparedness (PPD-8), Washington, DC, March 30, 2011,
p. 1, http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/laws/gc_1215444247124.shtm (hereinafter PPD-8).
112 Section 644 of PKEMRA, 6 U.S.C. §744.
113 PPD-8.
114 PPD-8. The national preparedness goal is “[a] secure and resilient nation with the capabilities required across the
whole community to prevent, protect against, mitigate, respond to and recover from the threats and hazards that pose
the greatest risk.” FEMA, “Learn About Presidential Policy Directive-8: National Preparedness,” last updated January
30, 2020, https://www.fema.gov/learn-about-presidential-policy-directive-8.
115 6 U.S.C. §§743-744.
116 The “whole community” includes individuals and families, including those with access and functional needs;
businesses; faith-based and community organizations; nonprofit groups; schools and academia; media outlets; and all
levels of government, including state, local, tribal, territorial, and federal partners. See more at FEMA, “Whole
Community,” last updated May 2, 2018, http://www.fema.gov/national-preparedness/whole-community.
117 6 U.S.C. §741(1) defines capability as “the ability to provide the means to accomplish one or more tasks under
specific conditions and to specific performance standards. A capability may be achieved with any combination of
properly planned, organized, equipped, trained, and exercised personnel that achieves the intended outcome.” A core
capability is one that is “necessary to prepare for the specific types of incidents that pose the greatest risk to the security
of the Nation.” See White House, Presidential Policy Directive 8: National Preparedness, Washington, DC, March 30,
2011, p. 2, http://www.dhs.gov/xabout/laws/gc_1215444247124.shtm.
118 FEMA, Emergency Management Institute, “The National Incident Management System (NIMS),” last accessed
February 4, 2020, https://emilms.fema.gov/IS0230d/groups/33.html. For additional information on NIMS, see FEMA,
Congressional Research Service

20

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

component policies, including National Planning Frameworks for each of the five mission areas:
Prevention, Protection, Mitigation, Response, and Recovery.119 Each National Planning
Framework is supported by a federal interagency operational plan (FIOP) that describes how the
federal government aligns its supporting resources and delivers core capabilities. Two of the most
important frameworks for responding to a disaster are described below.
National Response Framework
The National Response Framework (NRF) guides the nation’s response to all kinds of incidents
regardless of cause or size, including emergencies and major disasters.120 Although the NRF is
often closely linked with the Stafford Act, the NRF is always in effect and does not require a
formal Stafford Act declaration to be used.121 Moreover, the NRF is guidance—not law. As such,
it may be revised, as needed.
The NRF is designed to aid in management of any disaster requiring federal coordination,
including those declared under other federal authorities.122 The NRF is built on the concepts
included in the NIMS, and the NRF’s structure is intended to help federal, state, territorial, tribal,
and local government agencies. The NRF envisions that these agencies would coordinate with
private and nongovernmental organizations, and members of the community during a response,
using commonly understood terminology and management structures.
The NRF establishes 15 Emergency Support Functions (ESFs) to organize the response
capabilities of the federal government. ESFs “provide the structure for coordinating Federal
interagency support for a Federal response to an incident.” They group federal agencies with
pertinent authorities, resources, and expertise to accomplish a set of capabilities needed in
disaster response, regardless of the type of hazard.123 For instance, ESF #8—Public Health and
Medical Services—is designed to provide planning support and help coordinate federal public
health, healthcare delivery, and emergency response systems to deliver services to supplement
state, territorial, tribal, and local government resources in responding to an incident.124 The NRF
also contains additional guidance describing how it is to be used in response to certain common
disaster problems. The Volunteer and Donations Management Support Annex, for example,
describes how the federal government will support state, territorial, and Indian tribal governments

National Incident Management System, 3rd ed., October 2017, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/
1508151197225-ced8c60378c3936adb92c1a3ee6f6564/FINAL_NIMS_2017.pdf; and FEMA, “National Incident
Management System,” last updated January 16, 2020, https://www.fema.gov/national-incident-management-system.
119 For a summary of PPD-8’s major components and resources, see FEMA, “Learn About Presidential Policy
Directive-8: National Preparedness,” last updated January 30, 2020, https://www.fema.gov/learn-about-presidential-
policy-directive-8.
120 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, National Response Framework, 4th ed., October 28, 2019,
https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1582825590194-2f000855d442fc3c9f18547d1468990d/
NRF_FINALApproved_508_2011028v1040.pdf (hereinafter DHS, National Response Framework).
121 DHS, National Response Framework, p. 22.
122 DHS, National Response Framework, p. 3. Examples include public health emergencies declared under Section 319
of the Public Health Services Act (42 U.S.C. §§201 et seq.), or spills of national significance under the Oil Pollution
Act (P.L. 101-380).
123 FEMA, “Emergency Support Function Annexes,” last updated October 29, 2019, https://www.fema.gov/media-
library/assets/documents/25512.
124 Each ESF has a coordinating agency, typically several different primary agencies, and a larger number of support
agencies. ESF #8 is coordinated by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. FEMA, “Emergency Support
Function #8—Public Health and Medical Services Annex,” June 2016, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/
1470149644671-642ccad05d19449d2d13b1b0952328ed/ESF_8_Public_Health_Medical_20160705_508.pdf.
Congressional Research Service

21

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

in coordinating the “most efficient and effective use of unaffiliated volunteers, unaffiliated
organizations, and unsolicited donated goods” with local governments and voluntary
organizations.125
National Disaster Recovery Framework
The National Disaster Recovery Framework (NDRF) is a companion document to the NRF. It
emphasizes pre-disaster recovery planning and preparedness, and is a guide for the nation’s
recovery from disasters.126 The NDRF designates coordinating structures to assist with short-,
intermediate, and long-term recovery following a disaster incident. These include basic recovery
principles, and an explanation of roles and responsibilities at the respective levels of government.
As with the NRF, the NDRF uses a support function model to organize the delivery of federal
capabilities. For the recovery phase, FEMA and its partners may identify six Recovery Support
Functions (RSFs). An example of a Recovery Support Function is the Economic Recovery
Support Function, which is coordinated by the U.S. Department of Commerce.127
In addition, the NDRF also describes three positions that may provide focal points for
incorporating recovery considerations into the decisionmaking process following a disaster.
Those positions are the Federal Disaster Recovery Coordinator (FDRC), State or Tribal Disaster
Recovery Coordinators (SDRC or TDRC), and Local Disaster Recovery Managers (LDRM).128

Author Information

Bruce R. Lindsay
Elizabeth M. Webster
Analyst in American National Government
Analyst in Emergency Management and Disaster

Recovery

Acknowledgments
Erica A. Lee, Analyst in Emergency Management and Disaster Recovery, assisted with editorial comments
and suggestions.

125 See FEMA, “Volunteer and Donations Management Support Annex,” May 2013, https://www.fema.gov/media-
library-data/20130726-1914-25045-5208/nrf_support_annex_volunteer_20130505.pdf.
126 DHS, NDRF.
127 For more on the Recovery Support Functions, see the DHS, NDRF and the overview documents for each Recovery
Support Function on FEMA’s “National Disaster Recovery Framework, Second Edition” website at
https://www.fema.gov/media-library/assets/documents/117794.
128 DHS, NDRF, p. 9.
Congressional Research Service

22

Congressional Primer on Responding to Major Disasters and Emergencies

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

Congressional Research Service
R41981 · VERSION 28 · UPDATED
23