Updated January 7, 2020
Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps
(JROTC)
Overview and Mission
institution for a portion of the salary. DOD financial
The Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC) is a
regulations refer to the salary that a school must pay the
voluntary high school program of instruction administrated
instructor as the Minimum Instructor Pay (MIP). The MIP
by the Department of Defense (DOD) through the military
is the difference between (1) the active duty pay and
departments. The purpose of JROTC, according to 10
allowances the instructor would receive if recalled to active
U.S.C. §2031, is “to instill in students in U.S. secondary
duty and (2) the instructor’s retired pay entitlement. For
educational institutions the value of citizenship, service to
example, if annual military retired pay is $24,000 and total
the United States, and personal responsibility and a sense of
active duty pay and allowances is $52,000 the institution
accomplishment.” JROTC was established as an Army
would pay the instructor the difference of $28,000. The
program by the National Defense Act of 1916 (P.L. 64-85)
military may reimburse the institution $14,000 (one-half of
and in 1964 expanded to the Navy and Air Force. Congress
$28,000). Additional sample salary calculations can be
authorized Coast Guard units at two specific schools: one in
found in DOD Instruction 1205.13.
1989 (P.L. 101-225) and one in 2005 (P.L. 109-241).
Curriculum
There are over 3,000 JROTC units operating in every state
JROTC courses are taught over a three- or four-year period.
and in DOD schools overseas. Estimated enrollment in the
The curriculum typically includes academic coursework on
JROTC program is more than 500,000 students. The
topics such as leadership and ethics, civics, history, and
FY2020 NDAA (P.L. 116-92) allows for 8th grade students
health and wellness. The FY2020 NDAA authorizes
to participate in JROTC if physically collocated with 9-12th
instruction in science, technology, engineering, and
grade students. The law also requires host schools to allow
mathematics (STEM) fields. JROTC also includes service-
homeschooled students to participate in JROTC.
specific courses such as Aerospace Science or Seamanship
and Navigation. In addition, units offer extracurricular
Table 1. Distribution of JROTC Unit Sponsorship
activities such as color guard/drill team, marksmanship, and
field trips to military installations.
Service
Number of Units
Establishing a JROTC Program
Army
1,701*
Educational institutions interested in hosting a unit must
Navy
583
apply to the respective military department. By law,
Marine Corps
271
participating host schools are required to maintain
participation levels of 10% of the student body, or 100
Air Force
920
students, whichever is less. The military departments
establish criteria for unit placement. For example, the Army
Coast Guard
2
maintains an Order of Merit List, based on a point system
Source: FY2020 budget justification documents (J-books) for the
that awards credit to institutions for categories such as Title
Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps. *Army data is for FY2016;
I status under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act
updated data is not available in Army J-books.
(P.L. 89-10, as amended), local indicators of need (e.g.,
high unemployment or illiteracy), student enrolment, school
JROTC Instructors
financial solvency, and fair and equitable distribution of
Most JROTC instructors are retired or reserve officers and
JROTC programs among states.
enlisted noncommissioned officers (NCOs) who serve as
employees of the school district. Service level policies
Schools may also apply to host or convert an existing
require JROTC schools to have a minimum of one officer
JROTC unit to a National Defense Cadet Corps (NDCC)
(Senior Military Instructor) and one NCO (Junior Military
per 10 U.SC. §2035. NDCC statutory and regulatory
Instructor) on staff. Requirements to qualify as a JROTC
requirements are similar to host a JROTC unit. However,
instructor (e.g., education, certification) are specified in law
instructor salaries and other costs for NDCCs are the
(10 U.S.C. §2033). Instructors are also required to abide by
responsibility of the host institution and not subsidized by
standards set by their parent service, as well as the policies
the government. There are approximately 110 NDCCs
set by their host institution.
nationwide.
Retired servicemembers who are eligible for retired pay
Federal Funding
may continue to receive such pay while employed as an
Beyond instructor salaries mentioned earlier, the military
instructor. By law (10 U.S.C. §2031), military departments
departments also fund uniforms, cadet travel, training aids,
may subsidize instructor positions by reimbursing the host
text books, educational materials, and other unit operating
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link to page 2 Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC)
expenses. Host institutions provide classroom space,
A 2016 report from the RAND Corporation found that
facilities, and administrative support for the unit. Congress
JROTC is generally underrepresented in rural and remote
annually appropriates JROTC funds as part of DOD’s
areas. In addition, JROTC units in public schools are not
Operation and Maintenance (O&M) and Military Personnel
evenly distributed geographically and tend to be
(MILPERS) budget. JROTC funding for all of the Services
overrepresented in the South Atlantic states relative to the
in FY2019 was $386 million, with the Army program
national average. Public high schools with larger-than-
accounting for about half of the total (see Table 2).
average minority populations and in schools serving
economically disadvantaged populations are also
Table 2. DOD Funding for JROTC
overrepresented as JROTC host schools.
Enacted base funding in thousands, FY2019
Higher representation in economically disadvantaged and
Service
O&M
MILPERS
Total
larger/more urban schools has largely been a function of
service-level policy decisions that award preference for
Army
$178,352
$28,728
$207,080
Title I schools and other structural program requirements
(e.g., minimum student participation, availability of
Navy
$55,097
$15,231
$70,328
instructors). While advocates for JROTC point to positive
Marine
outcomes for high-risk youth, some critics of JROTC have
$24,607
$3,860
$28,467
Corps
argued that it unfairly targets low-income and minority
communities for military recruiting.
Air Force
$60,908
$19,205
$80,133
Total
$318,964
$67,024
$386,988
How does participation affect recruiting?
Participation in JROTC does not incur any military
Source: DOD Office of the Comptrol er, Budget Documentation
obligation and military recruitment is not a stated objective
for FY2020.
in statute or policy. Nevertheless, the military services
Considerations for Congress
intend to provide favorable exposure to military careers and
the program has potential to increase the propensity for
In Congress’s role in funding and overseeing JROTC, there
military service. Some researchers have found a positive
are several potential areas for consideration.
correlation between JROTC and enlistment while others
have found that the impact of JROTC participation on
What are some of the program benefits?
military enlistment is negligible when accounting for self-
While research on comparable student populations has been
selection into JROTC.
limited, several studies have found positive correlations
between JROTC participation and student outcomes,
JROTC participants who pursue enlistment or appointment
including school attendance and graduation rates, improved
as an officer may receive some benefits at the time of entry
test performance, higher self-esteem for female students,
into the service. For example, per DOD policy (DODI
and lower rates of disciplinary action.
1205.13), a student successfully completing at least two
JROTC funding may also benefit schools through support
academic years of the JROTC program is entitled to
for teaching and extracurricular activities. However, some
advanced promotion to the grade of no less than E-2 upon
critics have questioned whether cost-sharing requirements
initial enlistment in an Active or Reserve component. The
create a burden for poorer school districts.
military departments may award the grade of E-3 for
successful completion of three academic years. In addition,
How many units should DOD support?
the Secretaries of the military departments may nominate
The number of JROTC units that the services can support
up to 20 honor graduates from JROTC units designated by
depends on annual budget levels and funding priorities.
the Secretaries as honor schools for appointment to one of
Statutory limits on the number of JROTC programs were
the three military service academies (10 U.S.C.§8454 for
gradually increased over time, and in 2001, Congress
Naval Academy, §7442 for U.S. Military Academy, and
repealed all limits (P.L. 107-107 §537). Subsequent bills in
§9442 for Air Force Academy).
2006 (P.L. 109-364 §541) and 2008 (P.L. 110-181 §548)
Other considerations
directed the Secretaries of the military departments to
expand the program to additional schools with a target of
Some additional questions that Congress may consider
3,700 units by September 30, 2020.
when thinking about future investments in JROTC
programs include:
Is the distribution of units equitable?
 To what extent does JROTC curriculum help meet
A continued concern for Congress has been the equitable
program and national goals? Should additional courses
distribution of JROTC units across various demographic,
be required or incentivized?
socioeconomic, and geographic indicators. Language in the

Senate report to accompany the FY2015 DOD
Should the program be structured or funded differently
Appropriations Bill (S.Rept. 113-211) expressed concern
to encourage participation or remove entry barriers for
about JROTC participation at the individual and school
certain types of schools or sub-populations?
levels, and asked for DOD to report on “any plans to ensure
adequate representation of all regions in the United States
Kristy N. Kamarck, Specialist in Military Manpower
to ensure the capabilities of the Armed Forces to recruit
Xavier L. Arriaga, Research Associate
from a diverse background to sustain the all-volunteer
force.”
IF11313
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Defense Primer: Junior Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (JROTC)


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