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June 6, 2019
U.S. Overseas Diplomatic Presence: Background and Issues for
Congress
Members of Congress maintain enduring interests in the
Types of Diplomatic Posts
U.S. diplomatic presence overseas. Congress plays an
The United States has expanded the diversity and functions
ongoing role in shaping the U.S. overseas presence by
of its overseas posts over the years. Types of overseas posts
authorizing and appropriating funding for the construction
vary in terms of their roles within missions, the rank of
and security of diplomatic facilities and, separately, the
Foreign Service Officers at post, and the types of functions
hiring of U.S. diplomatic personnel. Members of the 116th
the post performs. The State Department’s Foreign Affairs
Congress may continue to monitor and oversee these issues,
Manual describes the types of diplomatic and consular
including potential implementation of restructuring or
posts. Descriptions of many of such posts are as follows:
reform initiatives proposed by the executive branch.
Permanent Bilateral Missions. Embassies headed by
History of U.S. Overseas Diplomacy
ambassadors and established to conduct continuing
The conduct of U.S. diplomacy overseas predates the
diplomatic relations with the government of another
Declaration of Independence, tracing its history to the
country or authority.
inception of the Continental Congress. Early U.S. diplomats
played a vital role in efforts to attain independence from the
Multilateral Mission. U.S. missions to international
British Empire. Benjamin Franklin’s diplomatic efforts
organizations rather than foreign governments, such as
were instrumental in the signing of the Treaty of Alliance
the U.S. Mission to the United Nations (USUN).
with France in 1778. By 1797, an independent United
States maintained diplomatic relations with France, Great
U.S. Interest Sections (USINTs). Offices operating
Britain, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain.
under the auspices of a protecting power in countries
with which the United States does not maintain
U.S. overseas staffing levels and global presence have
diplomatic relations, tasked with maintaining U.S.
increased throughout American history, experiencing
interests and providing consular services to U.S. citizens
significant growth in the 20th century as the United States
in such countries.
assumed a greater leadership role in global affairs. The
United States engaged in its greatest expansion of overseas
Consulates General (CGs): The offices and staff of a
diplomatic presence following World War II. From 1940 to
consul general, often located in major, noncapital cities
1950, the number of overseas diplomatic personnel rose
of the host country. Consulates General normally have a
from 840 to 7,710. The number of overseas diplomatic
greater diversity of multidisciplinary staff than
missions experienced a concomitant expansion, rising from
Consulates, and they often house personnel from non-
58 in 1940 to 74 in 1950 and to 170 by 2018 (see Figure 1).
State agencies.
Figure 1. Composition of U.S. Department of State
Consulates: Typically smaller than Consulates General,
Personnel, 1940-2018
consulates comprise the office and staff of consuls.
Lacking the broader remit of Consulates General,
consulates focus almost exclusively on consular
functions such as the adjudication of immigrant and
nonimmigrant visa applications and the provision of
passport services to U.S. citizens abroad.
Consular Agencies. An office that provides non-visa
consular services, typically staffed by local residents
working part-time.
American Presence Posts (APPs). Small diplomatic
and consular offices, typically staffed by one U.S.
direct-hire officer. Legally, APPs are considered
consulates.
Source: Created by CRS based on data from U.S. Department of
State, Office of the Historian, Department Personnel, 1781-2010, and
Virtual Presence Posts (VPPs). Established to provide
Bureau of Human Resources, HR Fact Sheet 2018; Plischke, Elmer.
remote diplomatic engagement with important cities or
U.S. Department of State: A Reference History. Westport, CT:
regions, these posts have no resident U.S. employees.
Greenwood Press, 1999.
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U.S. Overseas Diplomatic Presence: Background and Issues for Congress
VPPs generally receive regular visits from mission
Figure 2. U.S. Overseas Presence in 2018
personnel.
Congress exercises oversight of the U.S. overseas presence
pursuant to several provisions of law, including Section 48
of the State Department Basic Authorities Act of 1956, as
amended (P.L. 84-885). This measure requires the State
Department to notify Congress no less than 45 days prior to
closing a consular or diplomatic post abroad. Similar
requirements have also been included in annual State,
Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS)
appropriations bills. Congress also funds the planning,
design, construction, and maintenance of all U.S. overseas
posts through SFOPS. The current U.S. overseas presence
is detailed in Figure 2.
Representation of Other Federal Agencies at U.S.
Overseas Posts
Sources: Created by CRS based on data from
As the complexity of U.S. diplomatic functions has grown,
https://www.usembassy.gov/.
so too has the diversity of U.S. agencies represented at
overseas missions; today, 30 U.S. agencies are represented.
U.S. Overseas Presence and
In addition to the State Department and the U.S. Agency for
Restructuring Initiatives
International Development, some of the most prominent
In the FY2019 Congressional Budget Justification for the
agencies with overseas personnel include the Departments
U.S. Department of State, then-Secretary of State Rex
of Commerce, Agriculture, Defense, Homeland Security,
Tillerson outlined the State Department’s Impact Initiative,
and Justice, as well as the Centers for Disease Control and
which highlights 16 keystone projects covering three broad
Prevention and the Library of Congress.
issue areas. One of those issue areas, “Modernizing Global
Presence, and Creating and Implementing Policy,”
The combined presence of these U.S. agencies within
contained policy items with ramifications for the U.S.
embassies, consulates, and other diplomatic posts is
overseas presence. Under the goals of this issue area, the
collectively referred to as U.S. overseas “missions.” The
U.S. Department of State proposed three main projects,
term “Chief of Mission” (COM) refers to the U.S. officer in
listed below. The implementation status of these goals is
charge of each mission to a foreign country, foreign
unclear. There is no reference to them in key documents
territory, or international organization. The statutory basis
outlining Department of State reorganization plans and
for the authority and responsibility of COMs is primarily
broader government reform efforts.
found in the Foreign Service Act of 1980, as amended (FSA
1980; P.L. 96-465). Section 207 of FSA 1980 outlines
Improve U.S. Government Global Presence
COM responsibilities, authority over personnel, and the
Governance: This project focused on examining and
obligations of U.S. personnel and agencies to keep the
building upon existing programs governing the U.S.
COM informed of all activities and operations of employees
global presence to allow agencies to improve their
in that country. National Security Decision Directive
coordination on overseas deployments while also
(NSDD) 38, which went into effect in 1982, gives COMs
providing for clearer evaluations of the U.S. global
further control of the size, composition, and mandate of
presence relative to national interests.
overseas full-time mission staffing for all U.S. agencies.
Develop and Implement a National Interest Global
Requests by agencies for additions, deletions, and changes
Presence Model: This project discussed efforts to
to their staffing overseas are managed by the Office of
develop new quantitative means to compare overseas
Management Policy, Rightsizing, and Innovation (M/PRI).
personnel deployments and other costs with U.S.
national interests and policy priorities in the territory in
Typically, the U.S. ambassador posted to a country with
question to support more data-informed decisionmaking
which the United States maintains diplomatic relations
regarding changes to the U.S. overseas presence.
serves as the COM. In the absence of an ambassador, the
FSA authorizes the President to appoint a career U.S.
Expanding Post Archetype Options: This project
Foreign Service officer as a chargé d'affaires “for such
focused on examining the overseas post models
period as the public interest may require.” However, many
(described above) and revising them to align with the
observers note that, while chargés d'affaires are generally
challenges the United States currently faces.
qualified and capable of serving as COMs, it is preferable
for a host of reasons for the United States to be represented
abroad by U.S. ambassadors confirmed by and with the
advice and consent of the Senate.
Cory R. Gill, Analyst in Foreign Affairs
Edward J. Collins-Chase, Research Assistant
IF11242
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U.S. Overseas Diplomatic Presence: Background and Issues for Congress
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