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Updated August 9, 2018
Transnational Crime Issues: Heroin Production, Fentanyl
Trafficking, and U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation
Introduction
than doubled, according to data from U.S. Customs and
The domestic opioid epidemic in the United States is
Border Protection. Seizures declined in FY2016 and again
raising questions among policymakers about how to address
in FY2017 but are trending upward. By July 2018 (with two
foreign sources of opioids—particularly the cultivation of
months left in the fiscal year), the amount of heroin seized
opium poppy, production of heroin, and clandestine
in FY2018 had exceeded the annual total for FY2017 of
manufacture or diversion of fentanyl (a synthetic opioid)
3,925 kilograms (kg).
and fentanyl analogues at their foreign sources.
Figure 1. Poppy Cultivation in Mexico, 2011-2017
Global Context
Heroin is a highly addictive and internationally controlled
narcotic processed from morphine and extracted from
certain types of opium poppy plants. According to the
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC),
global opium poppy cultivation surged higher in 2017 than
in any year since 2000, largely due to increased cultivation
in Afghanistan. Mexico’s opium poppy cultivation, while
having risen between 2013 and 2017, represents less than
10% of global opium poppy cultivation.
Although heroin sourced from Southwest and Southeast
Asia can be found in the United States, Latin America has
featured as the main source of U.S.-consumed heroin in
recent decades. Until recently, Colombia and, to a much
lesser extent, Guatemala supplied the U.S. market. Since
2013, the majority of U.S.-seized heroin has originated in
Mexico. Mexican-sourced heroin now accounts for more
than 90% of the total weight of U.S.-seized heroin analyzed
in the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration’s (DEA’s)
Heroin Signature Program.
Heroin Production in Mexico
According to the U.S. Office of National Drug Control
Policy (ONDCP), 44,100 hectares of opium poppy were
cultivated in Mexico in 2017—up from 32,000 in 2016, a
38% increase (see Figure 1). Cultivation is concentrated in
the hilly, western regions of the country, in two primary
zones: the southwestern states of Guerrero (and to a much
lesser extent Oaxaca) and the tri-border or “golden triangle”
Source: Graphic created by CRS using data from the Office of
region of Durango, Sinaloa, and Chihuahua. Mexican
National Drug Control Policy. Map generated by Hannah Fischer
farmers may be cultivating multiple harvests of opium
using data from the U.S. government (2017); U.S. Department of
poppy each year. Some states, such as Sinaloa and
State (2017); Esri (2014); and DeLorme (2014).
Guerrero, lack access to licit livelihood alternatives and
suffer from escalating levels of violence, as crime groups
Eradication and Interdiction in Mexico
vie for control of heroin production.
According to the website of Mexico’s defense ministry,
28,750 hectares of poppy were eradicated in 2017 (up from
According to ONDCP estimates, heroin production also has
22,235 hectares in 2016). The Mexican military has
surged in Mexico. An estimated 111 metric tons of potential
conducted eradication since the 1930s, primarily manually.
pure heroin were produced in Mexico in 2017, up 37%
High levels of violence in many opium-producing states, as
from 81 metric tons in 2016, although heroin production
well as historic ties between drug trafficking kingpins and
estimates are difficult to determine precisely.
local farmers, can present challenges for manual
eradication.
From 2010 to 2015, the amount of heroin seized by U.S.
law enforcement agencies along the southwest border more
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Transnational Crime Issues: Heroin Production, Fentanyl Trafficking, and U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation
Mexican navy and federal police forces have prioritized
work with Canada through the North American Drug
detaining and arresting top drug kingpins and securing
Dialogue (last held on December 1, 2017) to develop
urban areas, but neither they, nor Mexican customs
common assessments of the opioid threat, regulate and
officials, generally have seized large quantities of drugs.
classify fentanyl and its chemical precursors, and share
According to Mexican defense ministry data, reported
best practices.
seizures of opium gum declined from 1,238 kg in 2015 to
228 kg in 2016, before rising to 462 kg in 2017. Heroin
Although disagreements exist, including the amount of
seizures also declined from 422 kg in 2015 to 318 kg in
U.S.-bound opioids that are sourced or transit through
2016, before rising to 347 kg in 2017. The number of
Mexico, bilateral cooperation has yielded some results.
clandestine drug labs detected and destroyed fell from 185
During 2017, the State Department reported that U.S.
in 2015 to 112 in 2016 and 97 in 2017.
training and equipment helped Mexican officials seize
2,000 fentanyl pills and 1.5 kilos of precursor chemicals
Fentanyl and Fentanyl Analogues
used to make fentanyl at airports. Apart from the Mérida
Fentanyl is a synthetic opioid that is significantly more
Initiative, the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) also is
potent than heroin and approved for limited medical use as
authorized to provide counterdrug assistance through
a painkiller and anesthetic. Linked to the ongoing opioid
defense appropriations. DOD counternarcotics support to
overdose epidemic in the United States, fentanyl and
Mexico totaled about $59 million in FY2017.
fentanyl-related substances, including fentanyl analogues,
Other Policy Issues
have become increasingly available, according to the 2017
National Drug Threat Assessment. Clandestine-produced
In addition to bolstering domestic efforts to address opioid
fentanyl, as well as most illicit fentanyl precursor chemicals
demand, Congress has held hearings on Mexico’s role in
and fentanyl analogues, primarily are sourced from China
heroin production and trafficking, introduced several
and smuggled into the United States through Mexico,
resolutions on the trafficking of illicit fentanyl from Mexico
Canada, or direct mail. In addition to Mexico serving as a
and China, and considered multiple bills to address the
transshipment point for Chinese fentanyl, DEA suspects
import of illicit opioids and analogues into the United
labs in Mexico may use precursor chemicals smuggled over
States. As Congress reviews recent efforts and considers
the border from the United States to produce fentanyl.
additional options, possible issues may include
the U.S. role in or responsibility for supporting foreign
The United States is spearheading a wide range of efforts to
efforts to reduce opioid supply and address the social
curb the uptick in fentanyl use and fentanyl-related
and economic consequences of U.S. demand in foreign
trafficking, including greater cooperation with Mexico on
source and transit countries—including in Mexico;
fentanyl and fentanyl precursor seizures, engagement with
China to schedule fentanyl analogues for drug control,
the extent to which competition among criminal groups
including carfentanil. Internationally, the United States
vying to satisfy U.S. opioid demand has fueled record
successfully requested that two key precursor chemicals
violence in Mexico;
used in the production of fentanyl—ANPP and NPP—be
the extent to which fentanyl and fentanyl-related
placed under international control. The challenge of halting
trafficking may affect Mexican opium poppy cultivation
the flow of synthetic opioids to the United States remains
and the illicit opioids market in the United States;
substantial, however, as their potency means they can be
shipped in small packages, which are difficult to track.
whether tension in U.S.-Mexican relations over trade
Combating Opioids: What Role for U.S.-
and immigration issues affects prospects for future
Mexican Security Cooperation?
bilateral cooperation to address heroin production and
trafficking; and,
U.S.-Mexican efforts to improve security and the rule of
law in Mexico have increased under the Mérida Initiative, a
how current bilateral efforts may be impacted by the
U.S.-Mexican partnership for which the U.S. Congress
policies put in place by Mexico’s President-elect Andrés
provided nearly $2.9 billion from FY2008 to FY2018.
Manuel López Obrador. Some of López Obrador’s top
Mérida Initiative funds support bilateral and trilateral (with
advisers have proposed some drug policy reforms,
Canada) efforts to increase cooperation to combat heroin
including decriminalizing opium poppy cultivation,
and fentanyl production and trafficking. Recent efforts aim
which U.S. officials likely would oppose.
to
For background, see CRS In Focus IF10578, Mexico:
improve Mexico’s data on opium poppy eradication and
Evolution of the Mérida Initiative, 2007-2019, by Clare
heroin production through collaboration with UNODC;
Ribando Seelke.
provide specialized training and personal protective
Source material, legislative research, and further policy
equipment to Mexican personnel for interdicting drugs
analysis are available upon request.
(such as fentanyl) and dismantling drug labs;
upgrade Mexico’s national drug control system to better
Clare Ribando Seelke, Specialist in Latin American
track the flow of chemical precursors;
Affairs
train all canines provided through the Mérida Initiative
Liana W. Rosen, Specialist in International Crime and
in fentanyl detection; and
Narcotics
IF10400
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Transnational Crime Issues: Heroin Production, Fentanyl Trafficking, and U.S.-Mexico Security Cooperation
Disclaimer
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10400 · VERSION 7 · UPDATED