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Updated October 24, 2017
Transnational Crime Issues: International Drug Trafficking
Introduction
Enforcement Agency (DEA), clandestinely produced
As a matter of U.S. and international policy, the production,
fentanyl may be sourced from Mexico, while fentanyl
dissemination, sale, and human consumption of potentially
analogs and precursor chemicals needed in the manufacture
harmful and dangerous drugs, psychotropic substances, and
of fentanyl are sourced from China.
related chemicals are controlled through laws, regulations,
and related enforcement actions. Globally, the U.S.
Table 1. Mexico: Poppy/Heroin, 2013-2016
government contributes to counternarcotics efforts in
international fora, including the United Nations (U.N.), for
2013
2014
2015
2016
norm setting and multilateral cooperation on policy as well
Poppy cultivation (ha)
11,000 17,000 28,000 32,000
as law enforcement investigations. The U.S. government
also supports bilateral and regional capacity building efforts
Potential pure heroin (mt)
26
42
70
81
through the allocation of foreign assistance, a key pillar of
Source: Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP).
the U.S. government’s National Drug Control Strategy.
Cocaine
Since the 1970s, U.S. counternarcotics assistance to foreign
The three primary sources of coca bush, the plant from
countries has grown to span a wide range of programming,
which cocaine is derived, are located in South America:
including specialized police training, justice sector capacity
Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia. Although U.N. estimates at
building, drug crop elimination, interdiction support, and
the global level indicate that the cocaine market is stable,
demand reduction. In recent years, U.S. policy has placed
the vast expansion of Colombia’s coca cultivation and
increasing emphasis on (1) embedding drug issues within
cocaine production in recent years (see Table 2) may be
the context of countering transnational organized crime; (2)
driving changes in the global market, as may the potential
combating the convergence of drugs, terrorism, and other
for emerging cocaine consumption in Asia and the Pacific.
illicit activity; and (3) integrating drug supply reduction
programming (eradication, interdiction, arrests,
At the regional level, cocaine use and availability trends
prosecutions, incarcerations, etc.) with programming that
suggest potential for further growth. Already, consumption
responds to the societal and political consequences of such
in the United States is up, after sharp declines through
trafficking (violence, dislocation, addiction, corruption,
2012. Despite stagnating European consumption in recent
weak governance, etc.).
years, cocaine availability is increasing. Another
Opiates and Heroin
concerning trend involves an uptick in the number of
overdose deaths involving a combination of cocaine and
Globally, illicit opium poppy is cultivated in almost 50
other illicit drugs.
countries, supplying local, regional, or international
distribution and consumption of opium and opiates,
Table 2. Colombia: Coca/Cocaine, 2013-2016
including heroin. The primary global producers are located
in Southwest Asia (Afghanistan), Southeast Asia (Burma
2013
2014
2015
2016
and Laos), and Latin America (Mexico, Colombia, and
Guatemala). Although global production estimates have
Coca cultivation (ha)
80,500 112,000 159,000 188,000
fluctuated from year to year, opiate consumption has
Potential cocaine (mt)
230
310
495
710
remained largely stable for more than a decade, according
to U.N. statistics.
Source: ONDCP.
Global trends, however, may obscure regional shifts. In the
The efficacy of U.S. approaches to combat cocaine
United States, for example, heroin use has increased along
production and trafficking in Latin America has been a
with the number of heroin-related deaths in recent years. A
source of longstanding debate; in recent years, reform
recent U.S. trend involves the lacing of heroin with potent
priorities in the region have diverged from the historical
synthetic opioids, such as fentanyl and fentanyl analogs.
U.S. focus on supply reduction. Aerial eradication in
Concurrent with efforts to reverse recent domestic drug use
Colombia, for example, ended in October 2015. With
and overdose trends, foreign policy discussions center on
substantial U.S. assistance devoted to programs in
how to boost U.S. efforts to reduce the production of such
Colombia, Mexico, Central America, and Peru,
drugs at their source, interdict the drugs in transit, and
policymakers and Members of Congress may continue to
dismantle the criminal organizations facilitating the trade.
monitor the effectiveness of such programs.
Most U.S.-consumed heroin originates in Latin America,
Implementation of the Western Hemisphere Drug Policy
following a trend since at least the 1990s; in recent years,
Commission, enacted in the Department of State
Mexico appears to have replaced Colombia as the lead U.S.
Authorities Act, Fiscal Year 2017 (P.L. 114-323), may
producer and supplier (see Table 1). According to the Drug
provide a focus for ongoing engagement and oversight.
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link to page 2 Transnational Crime Issues: International Drug Trafficking
Chemical Controls and New
funding (the INCLE account also funds programs for non-
Psychoactive Substances (NPS)
counternarcotics purposes). According to the Office of
Various chemical substances are used in the production of
National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP), the White House
synthetic man-made drugs, such as methamphetamine, or to
Office that advises the President on federal drug policy and
refine and process plant-based drugs, such as heroin and
budget matters, the State Department’s Bureau of
cocaine. Such chemicals may be manufactured for
International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (INL)
legitimate commercial purposes and illicitly diverted. DEA
managed $446.1 million in international counternarcotics
has reported, for example, that most methamphetamine in
programming in FY2015.
the United States is produced in Mexico.
Pursuant to the FAA, as amended, “priority consideration”
NPS are chemicals designed to mimic the effects of illegal
is to be given to development programming that would both
drugs, but are not subject to international drug controls and
reduce drug crop cultivation and stimulate broader
are inconsistently regulated at the national level. From a
economic opportunities. On the basis of this authority, the
total of just 26 reported NPS in 2008, the U.N. reports that
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) uses
more than 739 NPS were discovered between 2009 and
funds appropriated for Development Assistance (DA)
2016 (see Table 3). Common NPS used in the United
and/or the Economic Support Fund (ESF) to implement
States include synthetic cannabinoids, such as Spice and K2,
alternative development programming in Afghanistan,
as well as synthetic cathinones (bath salts). Many of these
Colombia, and Peru. According to ONDCP, USAID
NPS are sourced from countries known for their chemical
managed $95.5 million in such funding in FY2015.
production capabilities, including China. In the absence of
timely updates to international drug control listings,
Foreign assistance appropriated to the State Department
countries are trying different policy approaches to regulate
may also be subject to restrictions on the basis of foreign
or prohibit NPS distribution and use. Many observers
country counternarcotics performance. A cornerstone of
acknowledge this as an evolving policy area.
this policy is an annual process in which the President
identifies major foreign illicit drug producing and transit
Table 3. U.N.-Reported NPS, 2009-2016
countries and prohibits bilateral assistance to those whose
counternarcotics efforts are determined to be lacking. In
2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
annual State-Foreign Operations appropriations, Congress
128
162
212
270
450
452
644
739
adds additional conditions and reporting requirements on
the use of funds, including counternarcotics INCLE funds.
Source: U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime.
The Secretary of Defense is additionally authorized to
Cannabis
support the counterdrug activities of foreign security forces,
Cannabis, or marijuana, is the most widely cultivated,
including law enforcement agencies. Funding for DOD
produced, and consumed illegal drug in the world.
counterdrug activities is funded out of a central transfer
According to the U.N., approximately 3.8% of the global
account (CTA) in Defense Appropriations Acts for Drug
population used cannabis in 2015—a trend that has
Interdiction and Counter-Drug Activities, Defense-Wide. In
remained largely stable since 1998. In recent years, a
FY2017, DOD was appropriated $626.1 million in base
growing number of countries have participated in efforts to
funds and an additional $215.3 million in OCO funds for its
variously decriminalize, depenalize, and legally regulate
counterdrug support efforts. The FY2017 NDAA, P.L. 114-
cannabis cultivation and consumption, whether for medical
328, modified DOD’s counternarcotics authorities as part of
purposes or for recreation. Uruguay, for example, passed a
a broader reconceptualization of DOD’s security
law in 2013 to authorize the production and distribution of
cooperation authorities; implementation of the latter could
cannabis for adult recreational use. In the United States,
affect the conduct of future DOD counterdrug efforts.
although cannabis remains a federally controlled substance
on par with heroin and ecstasy, several states have passed
Outlook
laws to legalize marijuana for recreational and/or medical
The 115th Congress may continue to monitor drug
use. Internationally, the United States has come under
developments around the world and their impact on
pressure to reconcile its federal and state policies, including
domestic drug trafficking and consumption patterns. On the
at the 2016 U.N. General Assembly Special Session on the
international front, Members of Congress may also review
World Drug Problem.
existing foreign assistance authorities and funding for
effectiveness in advancing U.S. counternarcotics priorities.
Authorities and Appropriations
The President is authorized, “notwithstanding any other
Source material, legislative research, and further policy
provision of law,” to provide assistance to foreign countries
analysis are available to congressional clients upon
and organizations for counternarcotics purposes and other
request. For additional background, see CRS Report
anticrime purposes. The authority, incorporated into the
RL34543, International Drug Control Policy: Background
Foreign Assistance Act (FAA) of 1961, as amended, serves
and U.S. Responses.
as the authorizing basis for annual appropriations for the
International Narcotics Control and Law Enforcement
Liana W. Rosen, Specialist in International Crime and
(INCLE) account administered by the State Department.
Narcotics
For FY2017, Congress appropriated $889.664 million in
base budget funding to the INCLE account and $412.260
IF10580
million in INCLE overseas contingency operation (OCO)
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Transnational Crime Issues: International Drug Trafficking
Disclaimer
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