Military Transition Assistance Program (TAP): Background and Issues for Congress

Military Transition Assistance Program (TAP): Background and Issues for Congress

Military Transition Assistance Program (TAP):
June 27, 2024
Background and Issues for Congress
Kristy N. Kamarck
The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) estimates that over 200,000 servicemembers (active and
Specialist in Military
reserve component) transition from active duty to civilian life every year, joining a population of
Personnel
about 19 million military veterans. This period of transition, from servicemember to civilian, can

pose unique challenges for veterans. Some of these include navigating veteran health and benefits
systems, translating military skills into civilian employment, and adjustment to civilian culture.

Congress has sought to ease servicemembers’ transitions by authorizing federal agencies to provide various support programs
and benefits. The Transition Assistance Program (TAP) is one such program. TAP is an interagency effort, led by DOD, that
consists of pre-separation counseling, self-assessment, and workshops for servicemembers separating or retiring from active
duty and for demobilizing members of the Reserves and National Guard. Military spouses are also eligible to participate in
certain TAP events and program materials are available virtually. Participation in certain elements of TAP is mandatory for
most servicemembers. TAP is funded through appropriations to the relevant agencies.
The TAP courses generally consist of individualized pre-separation counseling, DOD transition topics, Department of
Veterans affairs benefits briefing, and an employment readiness component led by the Department of Labor. Over the past
few decades, Congress has expanded counseling and curricula requirements, required tailored programs for different
demographics, and increased program oversight. Future Congresses might consider issues including TAP resourcing
decisions, program design and execution, and assessing veterans’ outcomes.

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Contents
Overview ......................................................................................................................................... 1
TAP Structure .................................................................................................................................. 2
TAP Participation ...................................................................................................................... 2
TAP Curricula............................................................................................................................ 2
TAP Oversight and Agency Coordination ....................................................................................... 3
VA-DOD Joint Executive Committee ....................................................................................... 3
TAP Funding .................................................................................................................................... 4
Legislative History .......................................................................................................................... 5
TAP Origins in the Post-Cold War Drawdown .......................................................................... 5
Iraq and Afghanistan Conflicts and TAP Enhancements ........................................................... 6
VOW Act and TAP Redesign (2011) ......................................................................................... 7
Off-Base Transition Training Pilot (2013) ................................................................................ 8
Congressionally Mandated TAP Counseling Pathways (2018) ................................................. 9
Issues for Congress .......................................................................................................................... 9

Tables

Table A-1. Selected Legislation Related to Serivcemember Transition ........................................ 12
Table B-1. Acronyms and Description .......................................................................................... 14

Appendixes
Appendix A. Legislation Related to Servicemember Transition ................................................... 12
Appendix B. Acronyms ................................................................................................................. 14

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 14

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Military Transition Assistance Program (TAP): Background and Issues for Congress

Overview
More than 80% of those who enter active military service will separate from service before
becoming eligible for retirement. 1 This is by design, as the military requires a “young and
vigorous” force to engage in physically demanding occupations, often in austere environments.2
Nearly all servicemembers eventually reenter civilian communities and most will embark on a
second career in the civilian workforce.
The Department of Defense (DOD) estimates that over 200,000 servicemembers (active and
reserve component) transition from active duty to civilian life every year, joining a projected
population of about 18 million military veterans in 2024.3 This period of transition from
servicemember to civilian can pose unique challenges for veterans. Some of these include
navigating veteran health and benefits systems, translating military skills into civilian
employment, and adjustment to civilian culture. For those transitioning to employment, it may be
the first time they have engaged in a full-time job search, as many enter the military directly from
high school or college. Even military retirees who separate with 20 or more years of service may
have little experience with conducting a job search, preparing a resume, or interviewing for
positions.
Congress has sought to ease this transition by authorizing federal agencies to provide various
support programs and benefits, including the Transition Assistance Program (TAP). TAP is an
interagency effort led by DOD that consists of pre-separation counseling, self-assessment, and
workshops for servicemembers separating or retiring from active duty and for demobilizing
members of the Reserves and National Guard. The program is primarily administered through a
memorandum of understanding by DOD, the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), and the
Department of Labor (DOL). Other federal agencies play supporting roles, including the
Department of Education (ED), the Department of Homeland Security (DHS, the United States
Coast Guard), the Small Business Administration (SBA), and the Office of Personnel
Management (OPM).4
Congress may evaluate the TAP’s current structure and statutory requirements, organization and
oversight mechanisms, and funding. In determining whether and how it may modify the program,
Members of Congress may consider its legislative history and significant changes to the program
made by previous congresses, as well as additional policy issues that Congress may consider in its
oversight role.

1 Generally, military servicemembers become eligible after 20 qualifying years of service. Report of the Military
Compensation and Retirement Modernization Commission, Final Report, January 2015, pp. 303 and 573 of 1003. For
more on military retirement, see CRS Report RL34751, Military Retirement: Background and Recent Developments,
by Kristy N. Kamarck.
2 Department of Defense, Military Compensation Background Papers: Compensation Elements and Related Manpower
Cost Items, Their Purposes and Legislative Backgrounds, Eighth Edition, July 2018, p. 55.
3 DOD, Defense Human Resource Agency, Operation and Maintenance, Defense-Wide, Fiscal Year 2025 Budget
Estimates, p. 22 at
https://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/FY2025/budget_justification/pdfs/01_Operation_and_
Maintenance/O_M_VOL_1_PART_1/DHRA_OP-5.pdf#page=22. Veteran population estimates at
https://www.va.gov/vetdata/veteran_population.asp.
4 DOD, Memorandum of Understanding Among the Department of Defense, Department of Veterans Affairs,
Department of Labor, Department of Education, Department of Homeland Security (United States Coast Guard),
United States Small Business Administration, United States Office of Personnel Management regarding the Transition
Assistance Program for Separating Servicemembers, at
https://prhome.defense.gov/Portals/52/Documents/RFM/TVPO/files/TAP_MOU.pdf.
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TAP Structure
Elements of TAP primarily fall under three sections of U.S. Code:5
• 10 U.S.C. §1142: Pre-separation counseling; transmittal of certain records to
Department of Veterans Affairs;
• 10 U.S.C. §1143: Employment assistance; and,
• 10 U.S.C. §1144: Employment assistance, job training assistance, and other
transitional services: Department of Labor.
These statutes require federal agencies to provide eligible servicemembers with certain
information regarding veteran benefits, programs, services, tools, and other entitlements.6
TAP Participation
Participation in TAP is mandatory for most servicemembers. Eligibility for TAP is contingent on
serving at least 180 continuous days on active duty. Military spouses are eligible to participate in
certain TAP events and program materials are available virtually.7 Coast Guard servicemembers
are able to participate in TAP either through the Coast Guard or at a DOD installation on a space-
available basis.8
TAP Curricula
The TAP course generally consists of individualized pre-separation counseling, DOD transition
topics, VA benefits briefing, and an employment readiness component led by DOL (see shaded
text box). According to DOD, the TAP elements may be completed separately over the course of
365 days prior to separation, or in a consecutive five-day period.9
TAP Components
•
Individualized Initial Counseling (IC) between the servicemember and a TAP counselor (no later than 365
days prior to separation).
•
Pre-separation counseling that covers mandated topics to include benefits, entitlements, and resources.
•
One-day DOD curriculum including modules on building resiliency by managing your own transition
(MyTransition), a Military Occupational Code Crosswalk, and the financial plan for transition module.
•
One-day VA Benefits and Services brief including disability benefits and compensation; memorial and burial
benefits; education and economic support; housing benefits; and health care options, including both physical
and emotional health needs.
•
One-day DOL brief on preparation for employment.

5 Chapter 58 of Title 10, U.S. Code, more broadly authorizes benefits and services for servicemembers being separated
or recently separated.
6 10 U.S.C. §§1142, 1143 & 1144.
7 TAP, TAP Online Courses, at https://www.tapevents.mil/courses.
8 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Transitioning Veterans: Coast Guard Needs to Improve Data Quality and
Monitoring of Its Transition Assistance Program, GAO-18-135, April 2018, p. 10, at,
https://www.gao.gov/assets/700/691415.pdf#page=10.
9 DoDTAP, Transition Components, at https://www.dodtap.mil/dodtap/app/transition/gps; and DoDTAP, TAP
Curriculum, at https://www.dodtap.mil/dodtap/app/transition/core_curriculum.
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•
Two-day elective based on servicemember’s post-transition goals (DOL Employment Track, DOL Vocational
Track, DOD Education Track, or the SBA Entrepreneurship Track).
•
A “Capstone” process if a commander or a commander's designee verifies that the transitioning
servicemember has met the TAP Career Readiness Standards, has a viable Individual Transition Plan (ITP),
and is prepared to transition to civilian life
TAP Oversight and Agency Coordination
The Military-Civilian Transition Office (MCTO) within the office of the Under Secretary of
Defense for Personnel and Readiness oversees TAP, as well as other servicemember transition
programs (i.e., Yellow Ribbon Reintegration Program and Skillbridge).10 This office provides
“program management including research, strategy, policy development, program design, budget
and contract management, grant management, curriculum development, program evaluation,
program assessment, program compliance, information technology (IT), public affairs, strategic
communications, and outreach.”11 MCTO is also responsible for coordinating with interagency
partners and other stakeholders to implement, assess, and enhance TAP. In the Coast Guard, the
Health, Safety, and Work-Life Directorate oversees TAP policy; one or two TAP managers are
assigned to each of the Coast Guard’s nine districts.12
VA-DOD Joint Executive Committee
In 2003, as part of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2004 (FY2004 NDAA,
P.L. 108-136, §583), Congress mandated the creation of the Department of Veterans Affairs-
Department of Defense Joint Executive Committee (JEC). Under 38 U.S.C. §§320 and 8111,
DOD and VA are jointly responsible for funding the JEC, and are required to publish a joint
strategic plan for coordination between the two departments (see shaded text box below) and an
annual joint report to the two Secretaries and to Congress, making recommendations as
appropriate (see shaded text box below). Besides representatives from DOD and VA, 38 U.S.C.
§§320 requires participation from the Assistant Secretary of Labor for Veterans' Employment and
Training. In addition, the law specified the JEC should have three sub-committees: the Health
Executive Committee, Benefits Executive Committee, and Transition Executive Committee. The
Transition Executive Committee has statutory responsibility for
• review[ing] existing policies, procedures, and practices of the Departments
(including the military departments) with respect to job training and post-service
placement programs; and

10 The FY2023 President’s Budget consolidated funding for YRRP and oversight for Skillbridge was transferred to this
office in calendar year 2023. DOD, Defense Human Resources Activity, Fiscal Year 2023 Budget Estimates, April
2022, p. 21, at
https://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/fy2023/budget_justification/pdfs/01_Operation_and_
Maintenance/O_M_VOL_1_PART_1/DHRA_OP-5.pdf.
11 DOD, Defense Human Resource Agency, Operation and Maintenance, Defense-Wide, Fiscal Year 2025 Budget
Estimates, at
https://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/FY2025/budget_justification/pdfs/01_Operation_and_
Maintenance/O_M_VOL_1_PART_1/DHRA_OP-
5.pdf#page=22https://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/FY2025/budget_justification/pdfs/01_
Operation_and_Maintenance/O_M_VOL_1_PART_1/DHRA_OP-5.pdf#page=22.
12 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Transitioning Veterans: Coast Guard Needs to Improve Data Quality and
Monitoring of Its Transition Assistance, GAO-18-135, April 2018, p. 8,
athttps://www.gao.gov/assets/700/691415.pdf#page=8.
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• identify[ing] changes to such policies, procedures, and practices to improve job
training, transition from life in the Armed Forces to civilian life, and post-service
placement.13
The responsible agencies implement this requirement through the Transition Assistance Program
Executive Council (TAP EC) and Senior Steering Group (SSG). Per DOD policy, the TAP-EC is
chaired by a Senior Executive Service (SES)-level DOD representative and the SSG includes
senior enlisted representation.14
TAP in the JEC Joint Strategic Plan, Fiscal Years 2022-2027
The JEC’s Joint Strategic Plan for FY2022-2027 includes a goal to “enhance the transition and post-separation
experience.” The plan focuses on the period of 365 days pre-separation to 365 days post-separation and
emphasizes individualized assessments and services.
According to this Joint Strategic Plan, the JEC intends to prepare an annual Joint Operating Plan with “current
priority objectives for each year in the FY2022-2027 joint strategic planning cycle, detailed action plans supporting
these objectives, and critical milestones and performance measures.” 15
TAP Funding
TAP is funded through appropriations to the responsible agencies.16
• DOD. Operation and Maintenance (O&M) funding supports TAP contracts for
counseling, instruction, IT support services, as well as research and program
evaluation. DOD-wide funding supports the MCTO, while military departments
also request funding for transition programming.17
• DOL. TAP funding is typically administered by DOL’s Veterans Employment and
Training Administration (VETS). DOL TAP funding primarily supports the
employment workshop component of the TAP program for separating members.18
• VA. TAP is funded through the VA’s Outreach, Transition & Economic
Development program.19 This funding line supports the VA benefits and services
part of the TAP curriculum.

13 38 U.S.C. §320(e).
14 DOD, Transition Assistance Program (TAP) for Military Personnel, DODI 1332.35, September 26, 2019, p. 6,
https://www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/DD/issuances/dodi/133235p.pdf.
15 JEC Joint Strategic Plan, Fiscal Years 2022-2027, p. 15, https://www.va.gov/opa/docs/remediation-
required/oei/JEC_Joint_Strategic_Plan_2022_2027_FINAL.pdf.
16 The USCG does not include line-item funding for TAP in its budget request documents.
17 See for example, DOD, Defense Human Resources Activity (DHRA), Operation and Maintenance, DOD-Wide,
FY2025 Budget Request.
https://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/FY2025/budget_justification/pdfs/01_Operation_and_
Maintenance/O_M_VOL_1_PART_1/DHRA_OP-5.pdf#page=28. The military departments do not consistently
provide a budget line item request for TAP or other transition funding in their budget justification books.
18 U.S. Department of Labor, FY 2023 Annual Performance Report, p. 26 of 128. See also DOL, FY 2025
Congressional Budget Justification Veterans’ Employment and Training Service, p. 3.
19 VA, FY2005 Budget Submission, Burial and Benefits Programs and Department Administration, March 2024, p. 163,
https://www.va.gov/opa/docs/remediation-required/management/fy2025-va-budget-volume-iii.pdf#page=163.
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• SBA. The Boots to Business program, a TAP component, is funded as part of
Veterans Business Outreach, in the Entrepreneurial Development Program
account.20
CRS is unable to estimate the total costs of the program since the military services do not
consistently include TAP funding as a line item in their budget requests. In addition, among all
agencies, TAP funding and programming may be integrated into broader veteran support
programs.
A large portion of TAP activity is executed through contracts: congressional mandates and other
changes that affect TAP structure and curricula can have cost implications. In 2023, DOD noted
that “periodic subsequent changes to legislation drive increases in development costs for
IT/enterprise solution enhancements, new curriculum and additional manpower requirements.”21
Legislative History
Throughout the history of TAP, Congress and DOD have structured the program primarily to
assist servicemembers in their transition to civilian sector employment. Congress has amended
the scope, structure, and eligibility requirements for the transition program several times over the
past three decades to include support for military spouses and to connect veterans and their
families with other transition resources (e.g., mental health/resilience, caregiver support, and
programs of state and local agencies). The discussion below focuses on significant legislative
changes to TAP; see Appendix A for a more inclusive timeline of transition-related legislation.
TAP Origins in the Post-Cold War Drawdown
During the late 1980s and early 1990s, following the end of the Cold War, DOD sought to reduce
the size of the active-duty force. These drawdowns were mainly achieved through reducing the
number of new recruits, tightening re-enlistment requirements, providing early retirement and
voluntary separation incentives22, and increasing involuntary separations.23 It was in this context
that Congress first authorized a transition program in the National Defense Authorization Act for
Fiscal Year 1991 (FY1991 NDAA, P.L. 101-510 §502). In hearings leading up to the bill’s
enactment, the Ranking Member of the House Military Personnel and Compensation
Subcommittee, Representative Herbert H. Bateman, expressed his concern about servicemembers
who may be caught off guard by a sudden forced career change,

20 U.S. Small Business Administration, FY 2025 Congressional Budget Justification and FY 2023 Annual Performance
Report, https://www.sba.gov/sites/default/files/2024-03/FY%202025%20SBA%20CBJ%20Final%20Updated-508.pdf,
pp. 24, 33, 92, 149. This account also funds the Veterans Business Outreach Centers (VBOC), Service-Disabled
Veteran Entrepreneurship Training Program (SDVETP), Entrepreneurship Bootcamp for Veterans with Disabilities
(EBV), Veteran Federal Procurement Entrepreneurship Training Program (VFPETP), and Women Veteran
Entrepreneurship Training Program (WVETP).
21 DOD, Defense Human Resources Activity (DHRA), Operation and Maintenance, DOD-Wide, FY2024 Budget
Request, p. 20,
https://comptroller.defense.gov/Portals/45/Documents/defbudget/fy2024/budget_justification/pdfs/01_Operation_and_
Maintenance/O_M_VOL_1_PART_1/DHRA_OP-5.pdf#page=20.
22 Congress funded the Voluntary Separation Incentive (VSI) and Special Separation Benefit (SSB) in FY1992, and the
Temporary Early Retirement Authority (TERA) in 1993 as force-shaping programs. See, CRS In Focus IF12042,
Defense Primer: Military Separation and Severance Pay.
23 Maria C. Lytell, et al., Force Drawdowns and Demographic Diversity: Investigating the Impact of Force Reductions
on the Demographic Diversity of the U.S. Military, RAND Corporation, 2015, p. 13.
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The other thing that strikes me [...] is that these figures go up to [a] 560,000 reduction in
military personnel. I do not know how many of these would represent people who joined
voluntarily, and who did not want to get out as opposed to attrition and [expiration] of
enlistment terms of people who were willing and happy to leave, but it seems to me you
have a very, very large number of people whose lives, whose careers, whose jobs and
economic security is [sic] going to be, at the very least, disrupted. [...]
[B]efore we embrace legislative changes that will mean real pain for people, we need to
make sure that other actions we take will mitigate that pain to the maximum extent
possible.24
To help ease the transition for those who were involuntarily separated due to planned personnel
reductions, the Senate Armed Services Committee recommended a number of provisions that
were ultimately enacted, including one that mandated the establishment of a transition program
that would,
…require the Department of Defense to implement a uniform, aggressive program to assist
separating military personnel find jobs and settle in the civilian community.25
As initially authorized, this transition program was required to provide pre-separation counseling
on eligibility for veteran benefits and services, other government-sponsored employment
programs, and job training assistance.
Iraq and Afghanistan Conflicts and TAP Enhancements
In 2004, in response to concerns about the ability of troops returning from contingency operations
in Iraq and Afghanistan to successfully transition back to civilian life, Congress directed the
Government Accountability Office (GAO) to report on whether TAP was meeting the needs of
servicemembers.26 The GAO’s study, released in 2005, found that program implementation and
participation were inconsistent across the active and reserve components. The GAO study noted
particular challenges in tailoring program content and delivery for the reserve component (RC)
due, in part, to rapid reserve component (RC) demobilization.27 GAO recommended that DOD
take action to increase participation in TAP and enhance the program with a greater emphasis on
veteran benefits, particularly for demobilizing National Guard and Reserves.28
Following the 2005 GAO study, Congress added several pre-separation counseling requirements
to the TAP program in the FY2006 NDAA (P.L. 109-163 §594). These included information on
job training, entrepreneurship, employment/reemployment rights, and federal preferences in
hiring and contracting. There were also requirements for TAP counseling to include additional
information on VA health care and mental health resources. The FY2006 NDAA also required
DOD to provide information on civilian occupations that correspond to military occupational
specialties. This requirement, along with mandates in the VOW to Hire Heroes Act of 2011 (see
below), has since been implemented as the Military Occupational Code Crosswalk.29

24 U.S. Congress, House Committee on Armed Services, Subcommittee on Military Personnel and Compensation,
Hearing on National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1991 - H.R. 4739, 101st Cong., 2nd sess., February 27,
1990, HASC No. 101-50, p. 41.
25 S. Rept. 101-384, p. 173.
26 P.L. 108-375 §598.
27 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Military and Veterans' Benefits; Enhanced Services Could Improve
Transition Assistance for Reserves and National Guard, GAO-05-544, May 2005, p. 3.
28 Ibid, p. 24.
29 DOD, 2023 TAP Curriculum; Military Occupational Codes Crosswalk,
https://www.tapevents.mil/Assets/ResourceContent/TAP/MOC_Crosswalk.pdf.
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VOW Act and TAP Redesign (2011)
In 2011, Congress ushered in a significant overhaul of programs for transitioning
servicemembers. This came following the 2007-2009 recession and high unemployment rates
among veterans, particularly those returning from Iraq and Afghanistan—some of whom were
disabled in those conflicts.30 DOD spending on unemployment benefits for servicemembers rose
rapidly during this time, peaking at $1 billion in 2011.31
In this environment, policymakers began to question the adequacy of existing transition services
in preparing servicemembers for success in the civilian job market.32 The VOW to Hire Heroes
Act of 2011 (VOW Act, P.L. 112-56) was an effort to provide a jobs package that would help
reduce veterans’ unemployment rates. The VOW Act enhanced several programs and authorities
under the purview of VA, DOL, and OPM. With regard to TAP, Subtitle B of the VOW Act
created some notable changes including requirements for:
• mandatory participation in the DOL employment workshop by nearly all
separating servicemembers,
• individualized assessments of civilian opportunities based on military
qualifications, and
• authorized participation in apprenticeship programs for those being separated or
retired.
The VOW Act also required another GAO review of the program (discussed below).
The FY2012 NDAA (P.L. 112-81), enacted shortly after the VOW Act, again expanded some of
the pre-separation counseling requirements to include topics related to financial management,
survivor benefits, and suicide prevention resources. It also included a provision (Section 551)
authorizing a job training or apprenticeship program for servicemembers expected to be
discharged within 180 days. DOD subsequently implemented an internship and apprenticeship
program now known as “Skillbridge” (see shaded text box below).
In 2011, the Obama Administration convened the DOD-VA Veterans’ Employment Initiative
(VEI) Task Force, which was charged with revising and improving TAP to better meet the needs
of transitioning servicemembers.33 This redesign—the first since the program’s inception—
incorporated congressional mandates and sought to implement a “Military Life Cycle” approach
through “career readiness standards” counseling at various touchpoints throughout a
servicemember’s career and a “capstone” assessment preceding separation.34 DOD’s target for
full implementation of these components was October 2014.35 The GAO’s congressionally

30 Daniel Schwam and James V. Marrone, Veterans' Employment During Recessions, RAND Corporation, Veterans'
Issues in Focus, 2023, https://www.rand.org/pubs/perspectives/PEA1363-7.html.
31 Congressional Budget Office, Transitioning from the Military to the Civilian Workforce: The Role of Unemployment
Compensation for Ex-Servicemembers, May 16, 2017, https://www.cbo.gov/publication/52503.
32 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Veterans' Affairs, Veterans Employment: Improving the Transition from the
Battlefield to the Workplace, 112th Cong., April 13, 2011, S.Hrg. 112-19. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Employment
Situation of Veterans – 2011”, issued March 20, 2012,
https://www.bls.gov/opub/ted/2012/ted_20120323.htm#:~:text=The%20unemployment%20rate%20for%20veterans,all
%20veterans%20was%208.3%20percent.
33 U.S. GAO, Transitioning Veterans; Improved Oversight Needed to Enhance Implementation of Transition Assistance
Program, GAO-14-144, March 2014, p. 2, https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-14-144.pdf.
34 U.S. GAO, Transitioning Veterans; Improved Oversight Needed to Enhance Implementation of Transition Assistance
Program, GAO-14-144, March 2014, p. 8, https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-14-144.pdf.
35 Ibid.
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mandated report, published in March 2014 before the full implementation of the redesigned TAP,
found that while federal agencies had processes in place to track program outputs (e.g.,
servicemember participation), they lacked mechanisms to evaluate longer-term impacts of the
program.36 In addition, GAO noted concerns about “unfavorable timing and location of program
delivery” for members of the National Guard and Reserve.37
Skillbridge Program38
The Skil bridge program is authorized by 10 U.S.C. §1143(e) to “help prepare […] members for employment in
the civilian sector.” Skil bridge essentially allows servicemembers to do an unpaid internship or apprenticeship with
an outside organization (private sector or government) during the last 180 days of their service. Servicemembers
continue to receive military pay and benefits during this time and they do not receive any pay or benefits from the
sponsoring organization. The program is managed at the installation/unit commander level and authorization to
participate is at the discretion of the commander. According to a DOD spokesperson, Skil bridge is considered “a
critical part of the investment the department makes in the future success of those who serve our nation in
uniform,” with a dual benefit in some instances of providing critical industries with “a trained and capable
workforce.”39 On the other hand, the program could also result in unfil ed positions within the military force
structure during the internship/apprenticeship and have readiness implications. DOD temporarily stopped
accepting new civilian employers into Skil bridge in July 2023 and to realign the program due to “overwhelming
popularity.”40
Congress, in the FY2023 and FY2024 NDAAs, has required DOD to place more emphasis on Skil bridge by
directing DOD to staff the program with at least two ful -time equivalent personnel, develop a program funding
plan, and conduct outreach to potential employers and participants (See Appendix A). The FY2024 NDAA
requires a GAO report on aspects of the program by July 1, 2024.
Off-Base Transition Training Pilot (2013)
Some observers have suggested that pre-separation servicemembers may not be able to anticipate
the challenges they may face as a civilian, and therefore post-separation TAP workshops might be
more meaningful.41 In 2013, in Section 301 of the Dignified Burial and Other Veterans’ Benefits
Improvement Act of 2012 (P.L. 112-260§301), Congress required a two-year pilot to assess the
feasibility of providing portions of TAP to veterans outside of military installations. The law
required the program to be implemented in three to five states, to be selected partially on the basis
of veteran unemployment rates. The Department of Labor’s Veterans’ Employment and Training
Service (DOL-VETS) invited Georgia, Washington, and West Virginia to participate in what was
called Off-Base Transition Training (OBTT).42

36 Ibid, pp. 22-25.
37 Ibid, pp. 1 and 26-28.
38 For more information on Skillbridge, see DOD, Job Training, Employment Skills Training, Apprenticeships, and
Internships (JTEST-AI) for Eligible Service Members, DODI 1322.29, January 24, 2014, Incorporating Change 1,
Effective May 5, 2020, https://www.esd.whs.mil/Portals/54/Documents/DD/issuances/dodi/132229p.pdf.
39 C. Todd Lopez, Service Members Find Civilian Career Opportunities Through SkillBridge, June 3, 2022,
https://www.defense.gov/News/Feature-Stories/story/Article/3052396/service-members-find-civilian-career-
opportunities-through-skillbridge/.
40 Amanda Miller, “Growth of SkillBridge Transition Program Paused After Overwhelming Popularity,” Military.com,
July 7, 2023.
41 U.S. GAO, Veterans' Employment: Need for Further Workshops Should Be Considered before Making Decisions on
Their Future, GAO-15-518, July 16, 2015, p. 13, https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-15-518.
42 Ibid., cover page.
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In general, DOL and GAO analysis of OBTT noted a high level of satisfaction from participants
in the program.43 Their reports also noted low attendance and challenges in engaging participants
with varied needs. GAO also noted that DOL and the VA have several existing programs to
support veteran employment and questioned whether OBTT could fill a niche that was not
already being met by other programs.44 The OBTT pilot program was completed in 2015; DOL
continues to offer OBTT workshops in both virtual and in-person formats as part of its Veterans’
Employment and Training Service (VETS) program.45
Congressionally Mandated TAP Counseling Pathways (2018)
Between 2013 and 2018, Congress enhanced several of the pre-separation counseling and training
requirements for TAP (see Appendix A). In 2018, as part of the FY2019 John S. McCain NDAA
(P.L. 115-232), Congress mandated several changes to TAP that again led to a restructuring of the
program. In particular, this legislation required the Service Secretaries to develop tailored
pathways based on the separating servicemember’s characteristics or situational factors (e.g.,
gender, disability status). It also required initiation of TAP no later than 365 days prior to
separation, individualized self-assessments (in-person or virtually), and servicemember election
of least one of the tailored workshop tracks offered as part of TAP. 46 These workshop tracks are
employment (DOL), education (DOD), vocational (DOL), or entrepreneurship (SBA).47
In 2022, GAO reported that DOD had fully implemented these pathways and that participation in
two-day workshops had increased.48 GAO also found that the services waived many
servicemembers’ attendance at workshops, sometimes in violation of the services’ own policies.
In addition, GAO found that 70% of servicemembers failed to meet the statutory requirement to
initiate TAP counseling at least one year in advance of separation.49
Issues for Congress
Since 2019, Congress, primarily through the defense authorization process, has made
amendments to TAP counseling requirements, and engaged in further efforts to expand outreach
and information sharing to transitioning servicemembers (see Appendix A). Stakeholder interest
in programs that support transition remains high.50
Oversight concerns continue to be focused on program implementation and effectiveness, and, in
particular, compliance with the requirement to initiate TAP at least one year prior to separation.
Given GAO’s findings of up to 70% of servicemembers out of compliance, Congress may

43 Ibid., pp. 13 and 22. U.S. Department of Labor Veterans' Employment and Training Service, Second Annual Report
to Congress; Off-Base Transition Training Pilot, April 14, 2015.
44 GAO-15-518, pp. 22-23.
45 See https://www.dol.gov/agencies/vets/programs/tap/off-base-transition-training.
46 The existing TAP at the time included optional 2-day workshops.
47 U.S. GAO, Service Members Transitioning to Civilian Life: DOD Can Better Leverage Performance Information to
Improve Participation in Counseling Pathways, GAO-23-104538, December 12, 2022, p. 6,
https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-23-104538.pdf.
48 According to GAO, the Coast Guard had only partially implemented the pathways and reported a target of 2023 for
full implementation. Ibid., p. 9.
49 GAO-23-104538, pp. 13 and 22.
50 See for example, Veterans of Foreign Wars, The Transition Assistance Program: Steps to Ensure Success for
Servicemembers as they Enter Civilian Life, Statement of Brittany Dymond Before the United States House of
Representatives Committee on Veterans' Affairs Subcommittee on Economic Opportunity, May 17, 2023.
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consider further investigations into the root causes of noncompliance and may also consider the
feasibility of these timelines. Another consideration might be whether all the current TAP
requirements should apply to those in both the active and reserve components.
Congress might also consider whether TAP and associated transition programs are meeting areas
of transitioning servicemember needs, such as
• navigating VA programs, benefits, and services,
• finding a job,
• adjusting to civilian culture,
• addressing financial challenges, and
• applying military-learned skills to civilian life.
TAP counseling and workshop components provide resources intended to ease these challenges
for servicemembers and their families. TAP arguably lacks components that support adjustment to
civilian culture; aspects of what some researchers have called the “psychosocial transition” may
be more challenging to address through federally mandated programs.51
When determining the level of resources dedicated to veteran transition programs, Congress
might consider labor market conditions. In terms of employment, DOL data from 2024 indicate
that veterans have lower unemployment rates than their nonveteran counterparts and that disabled
veterans also fare better than nonveterans with a disability. Between June 2023 and May 2024 the
nondisabled veteran unemployment rate averaged 2.7% relative to the nonveteran unemployment
rate of 3.5%.52 Veterans with disabilities have consistently lower unemployment rates than
nonveterans with disabilities, averaging 5.9% unemployment relative to 7.2% over the same time
period.53
In addition to TAP, there are several other federally sponsored programs that support veteran
transition or provide support after transition. A 2019 GAO inventory of available education and
employment benefits to help servicemembers, veterans, and their families achieve civilian jobs
found 45 such programs and benefits across 11 agencies.54 In some cases, military veterans may
have real or perceived barriers to accessing these programs. A 2020 study of post-9/11 veterans
noted that they “report having difficulty discerning which, if any, of these programs are relevant
to them or whether they qualify to use these programs.”55
Congress might also consider whether the amount of investment in transition programs is
appropriate relative to other DOD priority areas. Historically, Congress and DOD have expanded
transition programs when down-sizing the force or in the context of poor economic conditions to
help ease the transition of servicemembers to civilian employment. Congress might consider the

51 For more, see Mal Flack and Leah Kite, “Transition from military to civilian: Identity, social connectedness, and
veteran wellbeing,” PLoS One, vol. 16, no. 12 (December 2021). See also Rich Morin, The Difficult Transition from
Military to Civilian Life, Pew Research Center, December 8, 2011, https://www.pewresearch.org/social-
trends/2011/12/08/the-difficult-transition-from-military-to-civilian-life/.
52 DOL VETS, Veteran Unemploymnet Rates, June 7, 2024, https://www.dol.gov/agencies/vets/latest-
numbers#:~:text=Veteran%20Unemployment%20Rate%20was%203.0,from%203.4%25%20the%20prior%20year.
53 Ibid.
54 U.S. GAO, Military and Veteran Support: Detailed Inventory of Federal Programs to Help Servicemembers Achieve
Civilian Employment, GAO-19-97R, January 2019, p. 3, https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-19-97r.
55 Nicole R. Morgan et al., “Reducing barriers to post-9/11 veterans’ use of programs and services as they transition to
civilian life,” BMC Health Service Research, vol. 20, no. 525 (June 10, 2020).
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current environment–relatively low civilian unemployment and other challenges in meeting
recruiting goals–when considering the desired effects of TAP-related legislation.
Congress may consider these issues and others in deliberations around veteran transition services.
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Appendix A. Legislation Related to Servicemember
Transition
Table A-1. Selected Legislation Related to Serivcemember Transition
Year
Citation
Description of Provisions
1990
National Defense
Section 502 codified certain requirements for transition and employment-
Authorization Act Year
related services for servicemembers.
for Fiscal Year 1991, P.L.
101-510
1992
National Defense
Sections 4401(a), §4462(b), and §4441(b) required TAP course initiation no
Authorization Act for
later than 90 days before discharge, and included pre-separation counseling
Fiscal Year 1993, P.L.
requirements for certain jobs programs (e.g., Troops to Teachers).
102-484
2003
National Defense
Section 538 mandated the creation of the Department of Veterans Affairs-
Authorization Act for
Department of Defense Joint Executive Committee
Fiscal Year 2004, P.L.
108-136
2004
Ronald W. Reagan
Section 598 required a GAO report on TAP. Section
National Defense
Authorization Act for
Fiscal Year 2005, P.L.
108-375
2006
National Defense
Section 594 required information on civilian occupations that correspond
Authorization Act for
to military occupational specialties (i.e., Military Occupational Code
Fiscal Year 2006, P.L.
Crosswalk) and several other pre-separation counseling requirements
109-163
related to veteran benefits provided by VA, DOL, and SBA.
Section 595 required a report to Congress on actions taken in response to
the 2005 GAO report, with particular attention on TAP for those deployed
to overseas contingency operations and in federal hurricane response
efforts.
2011
VOW Act, P.L. 112-56
Title II, Subtitle B made changes to TAP including, mandatory participation
in the DOL workshop by nearly all separating servicemembers,
individualized assessments of civilian opportunities based on military
qualifications, and authorization for participation in apprenticeship
programs for those being separated or retired.
2011
National Defense
Section 529 expanded counseling requirements for financial management,
Authorization Act for
housing assistance, and responsible borrowing practices.
Fiscal Year 2012, P.L.
Section 551 authorized apprenticeship programs for servicemembers in the
112-81
last 180 days of service (i.e., Skil bridge).
2013
Dignified Burial and
Section 301 required DOL to conduct a two-year pilot program to assess
Other Veterans’ Benefits
the feasibility and advisability of providing TAP to veterans and their
Improvement Act of 2012 spouses at locations other than military facilities (off-base transition
(Dignified Burial Act), P.L.
training).
112-260
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Year
Citation
Description of Provisions
2016
National Defense
Section 562 required inclusion of alcohol, prescription drug, opioid, and
Authorization Act for
other substance abuse counseling as part of TAP pre-separation counseling.
Fiscal Year 2017, P.L.
Section 563 required inclusion of information regarding effect of receipt of
114-328
both veteran disability compensation and voluntary separation pay as part
of TAP pre-separation counseling.
Section 564 required TAP training on career and employment opportunities
associated with transportation security cards.
2017
National Defense
Section 541 required pre-separation counseling on caregiver support.
Authorization Act for
Section 542 required DOD to improve information provided in TAP on
Fiscal Year 2018, P.L.
State-submitted and approved lists of military training and skil s that satisfy
115-91
occupational certifications and licenses.

2018
John S. McCain National
Section 552 required tailored TAP pathways, initiation of TAP prior to 365
Defense Authorization
days of separation, and GAO reporting on implementation.
Act for Fiscal Year 2019,

P.L. 115-232
2019
National Defense
Section 561 required pre-separation counseling on how to file VA benefits
Authorization Act for
claims.
Fiscal Year 2020, P.L.
Section 562 authorized federal agency participation in the Skil Bridge
116-92
program.
Section 568 required that commanders assigned to a new military
installation receive training on the TAP resources available at the
installation.
Section 570C required the inclusion of question regarding immigration
status on pre-separation counseling checklist (DD Form 2648).
Section 570F required DOD and VA to coordinate with veteran agencies at
the state level to allow for voluntary transmittal of pre-separation
counseling checklists to such agencies.
Section 570G required a pilot program for an online/mobile TAP resource.
2021
Wil iam M. (Mac)
Section 572 expanded the Skil bridge program to the Coast Guard.
Thornberry National
Defense Authorization
Act for Fiscal Year 2022,
P.L. 116-283
2022
James M. Inhofe National
Section 561 codified the name “Skil bridge” for the program authorized
Defense Authorization
under 10 U.S.C. §1143(e) and required DOD to develop a funding plan for
Act for Fiscal Year 2023,
the program.
P.L. 117-263

2023
National Defense
Section 571 amended the description of counseling pathways for TAP.
Authorization Act for
Section 572 amended requirements for Skil bridge staffing, funding, and
Fiscal Year 2024, P.L.
outreach.
118-31
Source: CRS analysis of legislation in the 101st-118th Congresses.

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Appendix B. Acronyms
Table B-1. Acronyms and Description
Acronym Description
ED Department of Education
DHS Department of Homeland Security
DOD Department of Defense
DOL Department of Labor
GAO Government Accountability Office
JEC Joint Executive Committee
OBTT Off-Base Transition Training
MCTO Military-Civilian Transition Office
OPM Office of Personnel Management
SBA Small Business Administration
TAP Transition Assistance Program
VETS Veterans Employment and Training Administration
VA Department of Veteran Affairs

Author Information

Kristy N. Kamarck

Specialist in Military Personnel

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