The U.S. Census Bureau: An Overview

The U.S. Census Bureau: An Overview

The U.S. Census Bureau: An Overview
November 22, 2023
The U.S. Census Bureau is a federal statistical agency housed within the Department of
Commerce. It is tasked with producing statistics on demographic and economic characteristics
Taylor R. Knoedl
across the United States through more than 130 different surveys, including the agency’s largest
Analyst in American
surveys, the decennial census and the American Community Survey (ACS). Data gathered by the
National Government
Census Bureau inform federal funding for programs across all levels of government.

The requirement for a national census is derived from the Constitution, which mandates a

decennial count of the total population in the United States. The first was conducted in 1790. To
help meet this requirement, Congress established the U.S. Census Bureau over a century later. The Census Bureau’s authority
is codified in Title 13 of the U.S. Code, which includes authorization of and requirements for surveys, privacy protections of
respondents’ data, and penalties for not responding to certain Census Bureau surveys. Congress maintains oversight of the
Census Bureau through its authorizing committees—the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs
and the House Committee on Oversight and Accountability. The House and Senate Committees on Appropriations’
respective Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies subcommittees provide funding for the Census Bureau.
The Census Bureau is the largest of the 13 principal federal statistical agencies. It produces the most statistical products, and
has the largest budget and most personnel among statistical agencies. As a federal statistical agency, the Census Bureau
follows statistical policy directives issued by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) and works with the chief
statistician of the United States.
Data from Census Bureau products inform federal funding for programs across all levels of government. In addition to
informing the allocation of funding, decennial census data determine the apportionment of seats in the House of
Representatives among the 50 states and are used in the redistricting of congressional seats within states, as well as seats in
state legislatures.
A key Census Bureau initiative is the decennial census, which attempts to effectively count every individual in the nation.
The Census Bureau prepares for a decennial census over the course of a decade to enable this effort. Outside of the decennial
census, the Census Bureau releases a variety of statistical products on yearly and monthly bases. Data collected by Census
Bureau surveys can serve a variety of entities, including federal, state, and local governments; researchers; businesses; and
private citizens.
Congressional interest in the Census Bureau has typically focused on a variety of issues, including Census Bureau funding,
oversight, data collection, and data usage. The 2020 decennial census faced unprecedented issues, including impacts caused
by the COVID-19 pandemic. With preparation for the 2030 decennial census underway, there is increasing interest in a 2030
count of the U.S. population.
A combination of long-standing and emerging Census-related issues may be of interest to Congress. These include revisions
of how government agencies collect race and ethnicity data led by OMB, historic declines in survey response, use of
administrative records to support Census Bureau statistical products, recurring issues of survey under- and overcounting of
certain demographic groups, and Census Bureau innovations for protecting survey respondents’ privacy.
The Census Bureau includes the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands,
and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the decennial census. The American Community Survey does not gather data in American
Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, or the U.S. Virgin Islands.
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Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
History and Legal Authority ............................................................................................................ 1
Title 13 ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Title 26 ...................................................................................................................................... 3
Governing Legislation ............................................................................................................... 3
Congressional Committees ........................................................................................................ 3
Institutional Aspects ........................................................................................................................ 4
Director ..................................................................................................................................... 4
Directorates ............................................................................................................................... 4
The Federal Statistical System .................................................................................................. 5
Funding ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Census Bureau Funding Over Time .................................................................................... 6
Census Data ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Federal Programs Spending ...................................................................................................... 7
Reapportionment and Redistricting ........................................................................................... 8
Geographic Delineations ........................................................................................................... 8
Major Products ................................................................................................................................ 9
Current Surveys and Programs .................................................................................................. 9
Current Economic Statistics .............................................................................................. 10
Current Demographic Statistics ........................................................................................ 10
Periodic Censuses and Programs.............................................................................................. 11
Decennial Census of Population and Housing ................................................................... 11
American Community Survey .......................................................................................... 12
Economic Census .............................................................................................................. 13
Census of Governments .................................................................................................... 13
Other Products ......................................................................................................................... 14
2020 Decennial Census ................................................................................................................. 14
Selected Innovations ............................................................................................................... 14
Self-Response ................................................................................................................... 15
Address Canvassing .......................................................................................................... 15
Outreach ............................................................................................................................ 15
Data Protection and Confidentiality .................................................................................. 15
Administrative Records .................................................................................................... 16
Technology Used During Fieldwork ................................................................................. 16
Selected Issues ........................................................................................................................ 16
Cancelled Field Tests ........................................................................................................ 16
Citizenship Question ......................................................................................................... 17
COVID-19 ........................................................................................................................ 17
Under- and Overcounting.................................................................................................. 17
GAO High-Risk Series ..................................................................................................... 17
2030 Decennial Census ................................................................................................................. 18
Selected Ongoing and Emerging Issues ........................................................................................ 19
Survey Nonresponse Bias ....................................................................................................... 19
Under- and Overcounting ........................................................................................................ 20
Use of Administrative Records for Statistical Purposes .......................................................... 22
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Revisions to Race and Ethnicity Data Collection ................................................................... 23
Confidentiality and its Impact on Data Quality....................................................................... 23
Use of Artificial Intelligence ................................................................................................... 24

Figures
Figure 1. Census Bureau Funding from FY2011 through FY2023 Broken Down by
Selected Programs ........................................................................................................................ 7

Tables
Table 1. U.S. Census Bureau Authorities in Title 13 U.S.C. ........................................................... 2
Table 2. FY2023 and FY2024 Census Bureau Funding .................................................................. 6
Table 3. Top 10 Federal Assistance Programs Distribution Using Census Program Data in
FY2021 ......................................................................................................................................... 8

Table A-1. Recent Committee Hearings ........................................................................................ 26

Appendixes
Appendix. Relevant Committee Hearings from Senate HSGAC and House Oversight
during the 114th through the 118th Congresses ........................................................................... 26

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 27

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The U.S. Census Bureau: An Overview

Introduction
The U.S. Census Bureau is a federal agency that provides statistical data about the nation’s people
and economy. Every 10 years, the Census Bureau conducts a constitutionally mandated count of
every person residing in the United States. Planning for each decennial census can last over a
decade, with the process beginning shortly before the prior decennial census concludes. Data
from the decennial census are used for the reapportionment of seats in the U.S. House of
Representatives and the redrawing of legislative boundaries in a process called redistricting.
Additionally, census data are used to determine allocation of funding for numerous federal
programs, which according to Census Bureau estimates amounted to more than $2.8 trillion in
FY2021.1
Beyond the decennial census, the Census Bureau collects and publishes data on numerous other
population and economic characteristics, and it produces statistical products including data tables,
interactive visualizations, and reports. The bureau releases analyses throughout the year on the
surveys it conducts.
Congress historically has been interested in Census Bureau funding, oversight, data collection,
and data usage. The impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the 2020 decennial census, as well as
other issues related to the decennial census, were matters of recent congressional interest. With
preparation for the 2030 decennial census underway, Congress has shown increasing interest in a
coming count of the U.S. population.
The Census Bureau includes the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the
Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the decennial census.2 The American
Community Survey does not gather data in American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana
Islands, or the U.S. Virgin Islands.3
History and Legal Authority
The mandate to count the U.S. population in a decennial census is found in Article I, Section 2,
clause 3 of the U.S. Constitution:
Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may
be included within this Union, according to their respective Numbers…. The actual
enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the
United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such Manner as they shall
by Law direct. 4
The first count was conducted in 1790, pursuant to the First Census Act of 1790, and carried out
by U.S. Marshals.
The Census Bureau was established as an agency in 1902, when it was housed in the Department
of the Interior, and was shortly moved to the newly established Department of Commerce and

1 Ceci Villa Ross, U.S. Census Bureau, Uses of Decennial Census Programs Data in Federal Funds Distribution:
Fiscal Year 2021, June 2023, p. 2.
2 U.S. Census Bureau, “The U.S. Census Bureau Begins to Count U.S. Island Areas Populations,” press release, March
2, 2020, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2020/2020-island-areas-populations.html.
3 “Areas Published,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/geography-acs/areas-
published.html
4 Article I, Section 2, clause 3, of the U.S. Constitution, https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/article-1/section-2/
clause-3/.
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Labor in 1903. Subsequently, in 1913, the Census Bureau moved to the Department of
Commerce. In 1954, the existing laws governing the Census Bureau’s statistical programs were
codified in Title 13 of the U.S. Code (U.S.C.) through legislation.5
Title 13
Title 13 U.S.C. contains six nonconsecutive chapters covering general administration, the type of
statistical work conducted, mandates, penalties, and information exchange policies.
Table 1. U.S. Census Bureau Authorities in Title 13 U.S.C.
13 U.S.C. Chapter
Summary
Chapter 1—Administration
This chapter covers the basis of the Census Bureau’s authority, such as
§§1-26
authority of the Census Bureau director, permanent and temporary
employment policies, and information confidentiality. These sections aim
to ensure confidentiality of data collected during surveys, and that data
wil be used solely for statistical purposes. Use of administrative records
from other federal departments, agencies, or establishments is authorized
in this chapter.
Chapter 3—Col ection and
This chapter authorizes the col ection and publication of statistics in
Publication of Statistics
several areas such as agriculture, commerce, apparel and textiles, business
§§41-103
finances, crime, and religious bodies.a
Chapter 5—Censuses
Various surveys conducted by the Census Bureau are authorized in this
§§131-196
chapter, such as the decennial census, the American Community Survey
(ACS), the Economic Census, and the Census of Governments.
Chapter 7—Offenses and Penalties
This chapter covers the prohibition of officers and employees of the
§§211-225
Department of Commerce (DOC) or the Census Bureau from receiving
compensation for appointing an employee, making false statements, and
wrongful y disclosing information obtained during service with the agency.
The chapter also mandates response to a Census Bureau “survey
provided for by subchapters I, II, IV, and V of chapter 5 of this title (13
U.S.C.),” such as the decennial census and the ACS. Also, intentionally
providing inaccurate information to employees or officers of the DOC or
Census Bureau or refusing to assist census employees in enumerating
group living quarters is prohibited.b It also prohibits false answers from
owners of companies or other establishments in census surveys.c
As amended by 18 U.S.C. §3571 and §3559, failing to respond to a
required Census Bureau survey carries a penalty of up to $5,000.d
Chapter 9—Col ection and
This chapter provides capacity, regulations, and penalties regarding foreign
Publication of Foreign Commerce
commerce and trade statistics.
and Trade Statistics
§§301-307
Chapter 10—Exchange of Census
The Census Bureau, the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA), and the
Information
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) are authorized to exchange data to be
§§401-402
used for statistical activities under this chapter.
Source: 13 U.S.C. §§1-402.
a. The Census Bureau cannot require responses on individuals’ religious affiliations in household surveys.
b. 13 U.S.C. §223
c. 13 U.S.C. §224
d. P.L. 94-521 eliminated prison penalties for failing to respond to surveys.

5 P.L. 83-740, https://uscode.house.gov/statviewer.htm?volume=68&page=1012.
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Title 26
The Internal Revenue Code (U.S.C. Title 26) applies to the Census Bureau’s statistical work on
the collection of Internal Revenue Service (IRS) data about households and businesses. The IRS
is permitted to disclose federal tax return information to the Census Bureau, among other
agencies. In particular, 26 U.S.C. §6103 (j)(1) permits the IRS to share federal tax return
information with the Census Bureau for statistical purposes. Title 26 also specifies fines and
imprisonment as penalties for the unlawful disclosure of tax information.6 Census Bureau
personnel are required to take annual training in how to safeguard tax information per this title.7
Governing Legislation
The Census Bureau is governed by statutes that apply to most government agencies, such as the
Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (PRA, P.L. 104-13) and the Foundations for Evidence-Based
Policymaking Act of 2018 (FEBPA, P.L. 115-435) as they pertain to federal statistics.
Through the PRA, the Census Bureau, among other federal agencies, must publish notices to
inform the public of its collection of information and other activities in the Federal Register.
As specified by the PRA, the federal statistical system is coordinated by the chief statistician of
the United States. The chief statistician oversees implementation of government-wide principles,
policies, standards, and guidelines that impact the Census Bureau’s development, presentation,
and dissemination of statistical information.
OMB has issued several action items, with guidance from the Department of Commerce, for the
Census Bureau to implement FEBPA.8 They include creating a web portal for discovering and
requesting restricted federal statistical agency microdata;9 establishing a Census Data Governance
Board; and developing a data maturity model and skills assessment.
Congressional Committees
The Census Bureau falls under the jurisdiction of the Senate Committee on Homeland Security
and Governmental Affairs (Senate HSGAC) and the House Committee on Oversight and
Accountability (hereinafter referred to as “House Oversight”). Both committees have broad
responsibility for conducting oversight on government operations, which includes the Census
Bureau. Funding for the Census Bureau is under the jurisdiction of the House and Senate
Committees on Appropriations’ respective Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies
subcommittees.
In the years leading up to and following the 2020 decennial census, both the House and Senate
committees held hearings relating to the Census Bureau, particularly discussing funding and the
outcomes of the 2020 decennial census.10

6 26 U.S.C. §7213(a)(1)
7 “Ds017—Data Stewardship Awareness Training,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www2.census.gov/foia/ds_policies/
ds017.pdf.
8 “How is the Census Bureau Implementing the Evidence Act?” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/
what/evidence-act/how-is-the-census-bureau-implementing-the-evidence-act.html.
9 “About Us,” Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research at the University of Michigan,
ResearchDataGov.org.
10 A full list of hearings can be found in the Appendix.
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Illustrative examples of recent bills that would have impacted Census Bureau operations and data
collection and that advanced beyond introduction from the 115th Congress to the present are the
LGBTQI+ Data Inclusion Act11 and the Ensuring a Fair and Accurate Census Act.12 Both bills
passed the House but did not pass the Senate. In the 115th Congress, the Foundations for
Evidence-Based Policymaking Act of 2018 passed the House and the Senate and was signed into
law.13
Institutional Aspects
Director14
Title 13 of the U.S. Code Section 21(a)(1) provides that the Census Bureau “shall be headed by a
Director of the Census, appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, without regard to political affiliation.” A term for the director lasts five years, and
directors can serve a maximum of two full terms. The director as of this writing is Robert L.
Santos, who was sworn in on January 5, 2022, under the Biden Administration. He is the 26th
director of the Census Bureau.
The responsibilities of the Census Bureau director are delegated by the Secretary of Commerce
and include conducting oversight of the numerous surveys produced by the Census Bureau,
providing testimony before relevant congressional committees as needed, and participating in the
federal statistical system as a member of the Interagency Council on Statistical Policy (ICSP).
The director also appoints members of the Bureau of the Census Scientific Advisory Committee
(CSAC) and the National Advisory Committee (NAC) on Racial, Ethnic, and Other Populations.
CSAC advises the director on statistical data collection; survey methodology; geospatial and
statistical analysis; and other relevant statistical topics as they pertain to Census Bureau
operations or policies.15 NAC advises the director on hard-to-reach populations; race and
ethnicity; language; aging populations; and other related topics.16
Directorates
The Census Bureau encompasses several directorates that are responsible for different aspects of
the agency. Those directorates are as follows:
• Communications: carries out the bureau’s internal and external communications.
The communications directorate conducts oversight of marketing, public affairs,
congressional and intergovernmental affairs, customer service, stakeholder
engagement, and media relations.17

11 H.R. 4176, 117th Congress.
12 H.R. 8326, 117th Congress.
13 H.R. 4174 , 115th Congress.
14 For a more thorough explanation, see CRS In Focus IF11845, The Census Bureau Director, by Karen L. Shanton and
Sarah J. Eckman.
15 “Census Scientific Advisory Committee (CSAC),” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/cac/sac.html.
16 “National Advisory Committee (NAC),” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/cac/nac.html.
17 “Associate Director for Communications,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/leadership/
communications.html.
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• Field Operations: collects and processes data obtained by Census Bureau
surveys and censuses. The field operations directorate also consists of a
nationwide network of offices and home-based field staff.18
• Economic Programs: conducts the Economic Census and the Census of
Governments among 60 other monthly, quarterly, and annual surveys and 12
economic indicators. The directorate also conducts reimbursable surveys for
other government agencies, including the National Science Foundation, the
Department of Transportation, the Energy Information Administration, the
Department of Education, the Department of Justice, and the Department of
Housing and Urban Development.19
• Demographic Programs: provides demographic information relating to the size,
distribution, and characteristics of the nation’s population, income, poverty, and
housing. The directorate also gathers international demographic data, providing
survey and statistical services to other government agencies, including survey
design, data collection, and data processing. It also maintains sponsor and
stakeholder partnerships and designs and markets new products intended to meet
both national and international information needs.20
• Decennial Census Programs: undertakes decennial census programs, the
American Community Survey, and other geographic programs by the Census
Bureau.21
• Research and Methodology: develops research and methodology processes
through collaboration with Census Bureau personnel and other researchers both
nationally and internationally.22
The Federal Statistical System23
The Census Bureau is one of 13 principal federal statistical agencies within the decentralized
federal statistical system. Federal statistical agencies produce statistics in various focus areas,
often associated with the agency within which they are housed.
The federal statistical system is coordinated by the chief statistician of the United States, who is
located within the Statistical and Science Policy (SSP) office of the Office of Information and
Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) at OMB. The chief statistician is appointed by the director of OMB as
specified by the PRA.24

18 “Associate Director for Field Operations,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/leadership/field-
operations.html.
19 “Associate Director for Economic Programs,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/leadership/
economic-programs.html.
20 “Associate Director for Demographic Programs,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/leadership/
demographic-programs.html.
21 “Associate Director for Decennial Census Programs,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/
leadership/decennial-programs.html.
22 “Associate Director for Research and Methodology,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/leadership/
research-and-methodology.html.
23 For more details, see CRS Insight IN12197, The Federal Statistical System: A Primer, by Taylor R. Knoedl.
24 44 U.S.C. §3504(e)(7).
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Funding
The Commerce, Justice, Science, and Related Agencies appropriations bills provide annual
funding for the Census Bureau.
The Census Bureau was appropriated a total of $1.485 billion in FY2023.25 This funding was
divided between the bureau’s two major accounts: the “Current Surveys and Programs” account,
which was appropriated $330 million, and the “Periodic Censuses and Programs” account, which
was appropriated $1.155 billion. The Census Bureau had sought to combine these accounts into a
new account called “Censuses and Survey Programs” as of FY2022,26 but appropriations bills
from FY202227 and onward have maintained the previous account names and structure.
Table 2. FY2023 and FY2024 Census Bureau Funding
Current Surveys and Programs
FY2023
FY2024
Line Item
Actual
Requested
Current Economic Statistics
$220.6
$248.6
Current Demographic Statistics
$109.4
$127.0
Total
$330.0
$375.7
Periodic Censuses and Programs
2020 Census
$142.8
$0.0
2030 Census
$248.8
$409.0
American Community Survey
$250.8
$260.0
Economic Census
$167.0
$152.0
Census of Governments
$17.0
$14.0
Geographic Support Program
$112.2
$115.6
Enterprise Data Col ection and Dissemination
Systems
$216.2
$280.2
Total
$1,155.0
$1,230.3
Source: “U.S. Census Bureau’s Budget Fiscal Year 2024,” U.S. Census Bureau.
Notes: Amounts in mil ions of dol ars.
Census Bureau Funding Over Time
As illustrated in Figure 1, below, overall funding for the Census Bureau has varied over time,
with notable increases in the years leading up to the decennial census.

25 P.L. 117-328, Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023.
26 “U.S. Census Bureau’s Budget Fiscal Year 2022,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.commerce.gov/sites/default/
files/2021-06/fy2022_census_congressional_budget_justification.pdf.
27 H.R. 2471, Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2022.
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Figure 1. Census Bureau Funding from FY2011 through FY2023 Broken Down by
Selected Programs
Figure is interactive in the HTML version of this report.

Sources: U.S. Census Bureau budget documents for FY2013-FY2024 and relevant appropriations acts for
FY2011-FY2023.
Notes: Totals reflect combined line items and do not include any adjustments or transfers; some line items had
slight changes in name over different fiscal years.
Census Data
Data collected during the several surveys conducted by the Census Bureau have many uses in
different levels of government.
Federal Programs Spending
Data from surveys conducted by the Census Bureau are used by federal programs to distribute
funds in several avenues. Census Bureau data guide distribution of funds for federal financial
assistance programs by defining recipient eligibility, defining variables in fund allocation
formulas, and establishing program applicant selection criteria.28 Some examples of census-
derived data that determine eligibility or fund allocation include population thresholds and
population, demographic, or housing characteristics.
Census Bureau data are also used to monitor and assess whether federal programs are functioning
as designed, to encourage effective administration of federal programs, and to explore alternative
approaches to distributing the funds as necessary. According to a working paper published in June

28 Federal financial assistance programs include formula grants, project grants, direct payments for specified use, direct
payments with unrestricted use, direct loans, guaranteed/insured loans, and insurance as determined by the Annual
Publication of Assisted Listings, https://sam.gov/content/assistance-listings.
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2023, the Census Bureau estimates that its data were used to distribute more than $2.8 trillion in
federal funding to states, communities, tribal governments, and other recipients in FY2021.29
Table 3. Top 10 Federal Assistance Programs Distribution Using Census Program
Data in FY2021
Federal Executive
Department or
Program Name
Agency
FY2021 Funds
Medical Assistance Program
HHS
$568,115,846,349
Medicare Part B—Medicare Supplementary Medical Insurance
HHS
$395,915,112,082
Coronavirus State and Local Fiscal Recovery Funds
USDT
$350,824,555,169
Medicare Part A—Medicare Hospital Insurance
HHS
$326,389,294,515
Education Stabilization Fund
ED
$231,827,196,664
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)
USDA
$135,746,808,179
Medicare Part D—Prescription Drug Coverage
HHS
$98,097,289,508
Provider Relief Fund
HHS
$79,480,343,511
Highway Planning and Construction
DOT
$60,451,795,865
Supplemental Security Income
SSA
$55,717,174,587
Source: Ceci Vil a Ross, Uses of Decennial Census Programs Data in Federal Funds Distribution: Fiscal Year 2021, U.S.
Census Bureau.
Note: Table is not an exhaustive list of all federal assistance programs.
Reapportionment and Redistricting30
Following the decennial census, seats in the U.S. House of Representatives are reapportioned
among the 50 states to reflect the population change found in the survey. Redistricting is a related
activity in which states create new congressional districts or redraw existing district boundaries to
adjust for changes in both population and the number of House seats in the state. State legislature
districts are also impacted during the redistricting process.
Geographic Delineations
After each decennial census, the Census Bureau delineates geographic area standards to
determine urban or rural designation criteria. These geographic delineations are determined to
tabulate and present data for the urban and rural population within the United States, Puerto Rico,
and other territories. Census Bureau urban and rural designations are used as the basis for similar
designations by various federal and state agencies. Other government agencies use the
designations in their funding formulas to determine program eligibility.31

29 Ceci Villa Ross, U.S. Census Bureau, Uses of Decennial Census Programs Data in Federal Funds Distribution:
Fiscal Year 2021, June 2023, p. 2
30 For a thorough explanation, see CRS Report R45951, Apportionment and Redistricting Process for the U.S. House of
Representatives, by Sarah J. Eckman.
31 “2020 Census Urban Areas FAQs,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www2.census.gov/geo/pdfs/reference/ua/
Census_UA_2020FAQs_Feb2023.pdf.
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The Census Bureau delineates urban and rural areas for statistical purposes and to provide a
baseline used to analyze changes in the distribution and characteristics of urban and rural
populations.
Following the 2020 decennial census, the Census Bureau announced changes to its rural and
urban definitions.32 Under the new criteria, a densely developed territory which encompasses
residential, commercial, and other nonresidential land uses is determined urban if it has a
minimum population of 5,000 people or 2,000 housing units. An urban area is primarily defined
by referring to housing unit density measured at the census-block level. A rural designation
essentially means that the area is not urban. The delineation process applies three housing-unit
criteria:
• Initial urban core: 425 housing units per square mile minimum.
• Remainder of urban area: 200 housing units per square mile minimum.
• At least one high-density nucleus which contains 1,275 housing units per square
mile at minimum.
These delineations were a change from the 2010 standards.33 Under the 2010 standards, an area
qualified as urban if it encompassed at least 2,500 people, at least 1,500 of which resided outside
of institutional group quarters. This delineation also considered urbanized areas which consisted
of 50,000 or more people and urban clusters with a minimum population of 2,500 and not
exceeding 50,000 people.
Census Bureau urban and rural designations are not synonymous with the OMB-defined
metropolitan and micropolitan delineations. Metropolitan and micropolitan areas consist of entire
counties or groups of counties. According to the 2020 decennial census, 51,271,470 people lived
in rural areas within metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas. Meanwhile, 262,207,553
people lived in urban areas that were within metropolitan or micropolitan statistical areas.34
Major Products
Two broad accounts encompass the various surveys and programs the Census Bureau conducts:
(1) Current Surveys and Programs, and (2) Periodic Censuses and Programs. This section
describes some notable products, but it is not an exhaustive list of surveys produced by the
Census Bureau.
Current Surveys and Programs
This account includes the Current Economic Statistics (CES) and Current Demographic Statistics
programs.

32 U.S. Census Bureau, “Urban Area Criteria for the 2020 Census-Final Criteria,” 87 Federal Register 16706, March
24, 2022, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/03/24/2022-06180/urban-area-criteria-for-the-2020-census-
final-criteria.
33 U.S. Census Bureau, “Proposed Urban Area Criteria for the 2010 Census,” 75 Federal Register, 52174, August 24,
2010, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2010/08/24/2010-20808/proposed-urban-area-criteria-for-the-2010-
census#.
34 “2020 Decennial Census of Population and Housing, Table P1: Total Population,” U.S. Census Bureau,
https://data.census.gov/table/DECENNIALDHC2020.P1?t=Resident+Population&g=
010XX00US_010XXA0US_010XXA3US_010XXA6US_010XXG0US_010XXG1US_010XXG4US.
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Current Economic Statistics
The CES programs produce statistics on various U.S. economic sectors, including manufacturing,
minerals, construction, service, transportation, and retail and wholesale trade. CES influences
financial markets and serves as an input to several U.S. economic indicators, including gross
domestic product (GDP) measures.35
Current Demographic Statistics
The Current Demographic Statistics programs include several surveys covering population
demographics and other related information. These include the Population Estimates Program
(PEP), which produces population estimates in the United States (including Puerto Rico); the
Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP), which provides data on income,
employment, and household dynamics;36 and the Current Population Survey (CPS), cosponsored
with the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), which provides labor force statistics.37
Population Estimates Program (PEP)
The PEP creates estimates of the U.S. (including Puerto Rican) population by annually utilizing
current birth, death, and migration data back to the most recent decennial census to calculate
population change. These estimates are conducted at the state, county, city, and town levels.
Estimates produced from the PEP are used for federal funding allocations, as survey controls, as
denominators for vital rates and per capita series, and as indicators of recent demographic
changes.38
Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP)
Respondents to SIPP are households that are surveyed multiple times over a four-year period.
These households are generally from a large sample that makes up a national panel. The ongoing
nature of this survey helps demonstrate changes in household and family composition as well as
economic circumstances over time.
SIPP data help policymakers assess the distribution of income and impact of government
assistance programs. SIPP collects government assistance data on both direct money transfers and
indirect in-kind benefits.39
Current Population Survey (CPS)
The CPS collects data on respondents’ work, earnings, and education. Approximately 59,000
households are surveyed each month. Additional data on specified topics are collected through the

35 Office of Management and Budget, Statistical Programs of the United States Government: Fiscal Years 2019/2020,
December 11, 2020, at https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/statistical-programs-20192020.pdf#=
page20.
36 “Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP),” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-
surveys/sipp.html.
37 “Current Population Survey (CPS),” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps.html.
38 “Population and Housing Unit Estimates,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/
popest.html.
39 “Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP),” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-
surveys/sipp.html.
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several CPS supplements, which are conducted at varying frequencies depending on the sponsor
of each supplement.40
Periodic Censuses and Programs
This account includes the decennial census, conducted every 10 years; the American Community
Survey (ACS), which produces annual statistics; the Economic Census, conducted every 5 years;
and the Census of Governments, also conducted every 5 years.
Decennial Census of Population and Housing
The decennial census is the largest of the Census Bureau’s surveys. It aims to count every
resident where they lived in the country on April 1 during the given decennial census year. A
decennial census is planned over the course of a decade with annual funding that ramps up as the
April 1 “census day” draws near. Decennial census planning activities include research, design,
testing, and other related efforts. According to the Government Accountability Office (GAO), the
2020 decennial census received funding beginning in FY2012, with an estimated total cost of
$13.7 billion through 2024.41 The 2030 decennial census was first allocated $400.3 million for
FY2022.42 With the large scope of the decennial census, data collected every 10 years continue to
be processed years later and released as new data products.43 As already noted, the data gathered
during the decennial census are used for multiple government functions and programs, as well as
the redistricting and reapportionment processes.
During the years leading up to a decennial census, the Census Bureau conducts content research.
These content tests seek to ensure that census questionnaires are easily understood and reflect the
population accurately.44
Response to the decennial census is initially conducted through self-response from respondents
through an online portal, by phone, or by mail.45 To count those who did not self-respond, the
Census Bureau conducts a nonresponse follow-up operation where enumerators are sent out to
addresses that have not yet responded to the survey in an effort to complete the decennial census.
During the 2020 decennial census, the self-response rate was 67%, while the nonresponse follow-
up rate was 32.9%.46
Following a decennial census, the Census Bureau conducts a post-enumeration survey (PES) to
assess the quality of the count of the population. The PES surveys a sample of households but
does not cover people living in group quarters. Findings from the PES cannot be used to change
final decennial census results; rather, the PES is intended to both provide assessment of the

40 “Supplemental Surveys,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps/about/supplemental-
surveys.html.
41 U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2020 Census: A More Complete Lessons Learned Process for Cost and
Schedule Would Help the Next Decennial, GAO-23-105819, March 2, 2023.
42 “U.S. Census Bureau’s Budget Fiscal Year 2024,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www2.census.gov/about/budget/
congressional-budget-justification-fy-2024.pdf.
43 U.S. Census Bureau, “Next 2020 Census Data Products to be Released in 2023,” press release, April 27, 2022,
https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2022/2020-census-data-products-schedule-2023.html.
44 “Content Research,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade/2020/
planning-management/plan/content-research.html.
45 “Decennial Census Response Rates (2020, 2010),” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/data/developers/
data-sets/decennial-response-rates.html.
46 “2020 Census: Tracking Self-Response and Nonresponse Followup for Housing Units by State,” U.S. Census
Bureau, https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/2020-census-total-response-rates-by-state.html.
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current census and determine how best to estimate the population between the present and the
upcoming decennial census.
Issues particularly relevant to the “2020 Decennial Census” and upcoming “2030 Decennial
Census” are discussed below.
American Community Survey
The ACS is intended to measure the changing demographic, social, economic, and housing
characteristics of the U.S. population. The ACS is sent to sample addresses across the nation on a
rolling basis, with about 3.5 million surveys completed annually. Data collected from the ACS are
used to produce one-year and five-year population estimates. Five-year estimates increase the
reliability of statistics for less-populated areas and small population subgroups because they
involve larger sample sizes.
The Census Bureau also produces a customized version of the ACS, the Puerto Rico Community
Survey.47 The Puerto Rico Community Survey is part of the ACS with differences in phrasing and
terminology.48
ACS data are used by several stakeholders, including businesses, local governments, the federal
government, and private users for economic development, government decisionmaking, and
research purposes.49
Several federal laws require ACS data to be used as a basis for establishing program or grant
eligibility as well as for allocating federal program funds. For example, veteran status and
military service data collected from the ACS are used to allocate funds intended to support
veteran job training and employment programs. Other federal programs rely on ACS income data
to allocate formula grants.
Local governments are able to use ACS data as a guide for planning projects or programs to
prioritize by evaluating community needs and identifying subgroups that may most benefit from
project or program implementation. In turn, ACS data are also used to evaluate projects or
programs that have been implemented, by allowing local governments to see any change
experienced by subgroups following implementation of a given project or program. Additionally,
ACS data may be helpful for first responders to use in emergency management situations.50
ACS data on social and economic, housing, and demographic characteristics can provide a
resource for businesses to select a location to operate and to evaluate existing locations. Other
characteristics from ACS data that can help businesses understand a local working-age population
are labor force status, means of transportation, income, occupation, and education attainment
levels. Additionally, the Census Bureau maintains State Data Centers that can provide support for

47 “About the Puerto Rico Community Survey,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/
about/puerto-rico-community-survey.html.
48 “A Comparison of the American Community Survey and the Puerto Rico Community Survey,” U.S. Census Bureau,
https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/programs-surveys/acs/Library/OutreachMaterials/ACSFlyers/
A%20Comparison%20of%20the%20ACS%20and%20the%20PRCS.pdf
49 “Handbooks for Data Users,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/library/
handbooks.html.
50 “Understanding and Using American Community Survey Data: What State and Local Government Users Need to
Know,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/library/handbooks/state-local.html.
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businesses in accessing ACS and other data.51 The Census Bureau also offers the Census Business
Builder, a product designed to provide data for users looking to start or grow a business.52
The Census Bureau additionally releases annual ACS data on the 435 congressional districts.
Members of Congress and their staff can use these data to understand their districts’ current and
historical population characteristics. This tool, called “My Congressional District,” provides
access to the most recent ACS one-year estimates of a given congressional district. Data on the
District of Columbia and Puerto Rico are also available through this tool.53
Adding a question to the ACS involves a five-year, multipart process. This process begins with an
initial proposal by a federal agency. In the first year, OMB and the Census Bureau determine the
merit of this question and test wording options. Within this first year and into the second year, the
Census Bureau tests different ways to ask this question through cognitive interviews. Once
wording is finalized, the Census Bureau develops and conducts field tests to evaluate the
question’s performance through the fourth year. Following field testing, the Census Bureau
solicits public comment through a Federal Register notice by year five. The bureau makes final
decisions on implementation in consultation with OMB and the Interagency Council on Statistical
Policy’s subcommittee on the ACS.54
Economic Census
The Economic Census provides a five-year measure of U.S. businesses and the economy through
national-, state-, and local-level statistics, representing most industries and geographic areas in
the United States, or one of the five island areas or associated offshore areas.55 It provides a
statistical benchmark for current economic activity by informing the calculation of gross domestic
product (GDP) and the producer price index. Some data provided by the Economic Census
include business locations, workforce, and amount of sales by product and service type. The
survey is completed electronically by selected businesses in the United States.
Various stakeholders use data from the Economic Census. Businesses can utilize Economic
Census data to decide where to locate their operations, determine how much they should produce,
and compare their performance to other businesses within their industries or communities.
Communities can use the Economic Census to attract new businesses, understand the economics
of their localities, understand the characteristics of the businesses in the community, and make
comparisons to other communities or areas. Individuals can use the Economic Census to find
emerging job markets and growing industries.56
Census of Governments
Data obtained from the Census of Governments describe how state and local governments are
organized and tabulate those governments’ numbers of employees, payroll amounts, and

51 “State Data Center (SDC) Program,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/partners/sdc.html.
52 “Census Business Builder (CBB),” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/data/data-tools/cbb.html.
53 “My Congressional District,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/mycd/. Further information on
congressional districts, see CRS Report R47716, Current Federal Civilian Employment by State and Congressional
District, by Ben Leubsdorf and Carol Wilson.
54 “How a Question Becomes Part of the American Community Survey,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/
library/visualizations/2017/comm/acs-questions.html.
55 “Economic Census,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/economic-census.html.
56 “Purposes and Uses of Economic Census Statistics,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-
surveys/economic-census/year/2022/guidance/data-uses.html.
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finances.57 The levels of government covered under the survey are counties, cities, townships,
special districts, and school districts.58 Government organization data include the location, type,
and characteristics of local governments. Finance data include topics on revenues, expenditures,
debt, assets, number of full- and part-time employees, payroll, and employee benefits. The survey
is conducted every five years during years ending in “2” and “7.”
Data collected from the Census of Governments are used by both government and private users.
The Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) and the Federal Reserve Board use Census of
Governments data to help measure U.S. economic and financial performance. State and local
governments use data obtained from the survey for program and budget development, financial
condition assessment, and comparative analyses. The Census Bureau uses data from this survey
as a benchmark for all non-census year samples. Private users may use the data to conduct
research on the changing characteristics of the government sector of the economy and for public
policy research needs.
Other Products
In all, the Census Bureau conducts over 130 surveys and programs annually.59 These surveys
cover a wide range of topics and are released with varying frequencies. The Census Bureau
continues to develop new products and has begun to produce experimental data products.60 For
example, the bureau designed the Household Pulse Survey to quickly produce data on COVID-
19’s impacts on individuals and households,61 and the Community Resilience Estimates (CRE)
measure neighborhoods that are at risk from the impacts of various disasters.62
2020 Decennial Census63
The most recent decennial count of every person whose usual residence is in the United States
concluded in October 2020. The Census Bureau conducted the count with several innovations
while experiencing both unprecedented and recurring challenges.
Selected Innovations
To promote respondent participation, the Census Bureau implemented innovations in the areas of
operations, outreach, and data protection. Operations for the 2020 decennial census included the
use of geographic information systems (GIS) for address location accuracy, web-based self-

57 “Census of Governments,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cog.html.
58 Types of special districts include water districts, fire districts, library districts, mosquito abatement districts, etc.
59 “List of All Surveys and Programs,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/surveys-
programs.html.
60 “Experimental Data Products,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/data/experimental-data-products.html.
61 “Household Pulse Survey,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/data/experimental-data-products/
household-pulse-survey.html.
62 “Community Resilience Estimates,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/community-
resilience-estimates.html.
63 For additional information, see CRS In Focus IF11015, The 2020 Decennial Census: Overview and Issues, by
Jennifer D. Williams. For further inquiries, congressional offices may contact Taylor R. Knoedl.
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response, and a streamlined nonresponse follow-up (NRFU) program that enabled enumerators to
collect respondents’ data using mobile devices.64
Self-Response
Respondents were able to complete their surveys through internet or phone during an extended
self-response window. The Census Bureau found a self-response rate of 63.4% by mid-August,
with 50.6% of households self-responding using the internet-based survey prior to NRFU
operations.65
Address Canvassing
The Census Bureau expanded efforts to update its Master Address File (MAF), which is a file that
is intended to maintain an up-to-date inventory of all known living quarters in the United States
and Puerto Rico.66 For the 2020 decennial census, the bureau made numerous efforts to update the
MAF. These efforts included receiving U.S. Postal Service updates to establish a baseline for
MAF refinements; conducting a geographic support program in collaboration with state, local,
and tribal governments; and implementing a required Local Update of Census Addresses
(LUCA),67 which allows tribal, state, and local governments to review and comment on the MAF
for their jurisdiction on a once-per-decade basis.68
Outreach
The Census Bureau approached outreach efforts by addressing hard-to-reach populations,
engaging with higher-education institutions, utilizing a system for tracking partners, and digital
advertising. The Census Bureau also maintained a 2020 Partnership Program that took best
practices and lessons from the previous decennial census program.69 The program continued to
connect with tribal, state, and local governments as well as other community-based groups. New
innovations included a partner web page, additional audience initiatives, partnership specialist
personnel to focus on national partnerships, local partnership kickoff events, workshops for
partners to support 2020 decennial census operations, and a more robust evergreen Partnership
Program to maintain relationships throughout the decade.
Data Protection and Confidentiality
Data protection and confidentially, or “disclosure avoidance,” remains a long-standing Census
Bureau priority. For the 2020 decennial census, the bureau implemented a newer protection
framework called “differential privacy” in which statistical noise was applied to respondents’

64 U.S. Census Bureau, Four Ways New Technology Is Revolutionizing the 2020 Census, May 19, 2020,
https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2020/05/four-ways-new-technology-is-revolutionizing-the-2020-census.html.
65 U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2020 Census: Innovations Helped with Implementation, but Bureau can do
More to Realize Future Benefits, GAO-21-478, June 14, 2021.
66 “Master Address File (MAF),” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/research/guidance/
nlms/maf-description.pdf.
67 “Local Update of Census Addresses (LUCA) Operation,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-
surveys/decennial-census/about/luca.html.
68 U.S. Government Accountability Office, 2020 Census: Innovations Helped with Implementation, but Bureau can do
More to Realize Future Benefits, GAO-21-478, p. 9, June 14, 2021.
69 U.S. Census Bureau, 2020 Census Partnership Plan, https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/
partners/2020-partnership-plan.pdf.
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data.70 Further discussion on this topic can be found in the “Confidentiality and its Impact on
Data Quality” section of this report.
Administrative Records
The bureau implemented use of administrative records during the 2020 decennial census to serve
as a failsafe when survey responses could not be obtained, while limiting the burden on
respondents.71 When a household failed to respond during nonresponse follow up, or gathering
household data was otherwise impossible, the Census Bureau enumerated the household by
relying on records from the Internal Revenue Service, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid
Services, the Indian Health Service, and the Social Security Administration, as well as
information the bureau already possessed and commercial data. Further discussion on this topic
can be found in the “Use of Administrative Records for Statistical Purposes” section of this
report.
Technology Used During Fieldwork
During nonresponse follow up, the bureau provided enumerators and supervisors with mobile
devices for data collection and communication. This enabled temporary staff to work remotely,
reducing costs for physical office space needed to accommodate fieldwork operations.72
Selected Issues
Both long-standing and novel issues impacted the 2020 decennial census. These issues included
cancelled field tests as a result of uncertain funding allocations, a proposed citizenship question,
disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, and under- and overcounting of certain states and
demographic groups.
Cancelled Field Tests
Some planned field operation tests were cancelled as a result of funding uncertainty.73 Census
Bureau funding was less than requested during the ramping-up period for the decennial census.
The FY2016 budget request for the census was $1.5 billion, with $1.37 billion enacted.74 The
following FY2017 request was $1.63 billion, with $1.47 billion enacted.75

70 “Understanding Differential Privacy,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-
census/decade/2020/planning-management/process/disclosure-avoidance/differential-privacy.html.
71 Thomas Mule, Administrative Records and the 2020 Census, U.S. Census Bureau, April 1, 2021,
https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-samplings/2021/04/administrative_recor.html.
72 America Counts Staff, Smartphones, Online Responses Among Census Technological Innovations, U.S. Census
Bureau, October 7, 2019, https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2019/10/smartphones-online-responses-among-
census-technological-innovations.html.
73 U.S. Government Accountability Office, High-Risk Series: Progress on Many High-Risk Areas, While Substantial
Efforts Needed on Others, GAO-17-317, p. 225, February 15, 2017.
74 See CRS Report R44141, FY2016 Appropriations for the Census Bureau and Bureau of Economic Analysis, by
Jennifer D. Williams. For further inquiries, congressional offices may contact Taylor R. Knoedl.
75 See CRS Report R44567, FY2017 Appropriations for the Census Bureau and Bureau of Economic Analysis, by
Jennifer D. Williams. For further inquiries, congressional offices may contact Taylor R. Knoedl.
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Citizenship Question
The Trump Administration sought to add a question requiring respondents to indicate their
citizenship to the decennial census. Opponents of the provision feared this would dissuade
immigrant communities from responding accurately or at all to the decennial census survey. The
Supreme Court blocked the citizenship question, and it did not appear on the 2020 census
survey.76
COVID-19
The COVID-19 pandemic caused unexpected disruptions to the NRFU field work for the 2020
census.77 The NRFU process was scheduled to begin April 9, 2020, but was delayed following the
COVID-19 emergency declaration on March 13. Nationwide NRFU resumed August 9 and
concluded after a shorter-than-scheduled period on October 15, prior to any COVID-19 vaccine
rollout. These operational timeline shifts in the decennial census led to delayed delivery of
apportionment and redistricting data.78
Under- and Overcounting
The post-enumeration survey released in 2022 found under- and overcounts across racial and
ethnic groups as well as in different states.79 The PES was unable to indicate the reasons behind
under- and overcounts. According to the PES, there was not statistically significant undercounting
or overcounting in the total population.80 Further detail on “Under- and Overcounting” can be
found below.
GAO High-Risk Series
GAO placed the 2020 decennial census on its High-Risk Series list on February 15, 2017.81 GAO
made this determination primarily because the Census Bureau was using innovations that were

76 5 U.S.C. §551-559. For information on the Supreme Court’s consideration of the citizenship issue, see CRS Legal
Sidebar LSB10319, The Supreme Court Temporarily Blocks Citizenship Question on the 2020 Census, by Mainon A.
Schwartz and Benjamin Hayes.
77 “2020 Census Operational Timeline and Adjustments Due to COVID-19,” U.S. Census Bureau,
https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade/2020/planning-management/operational-
adjustments.html.
78 For further information on delays caused by COVID-19, see CRS In Focus IF11486, 2020 Census Fieldwork
Delayed by COVID-19, by Jennifer D. Williams. For further inquiries, congressional offices may contact Taylor R.
Knoedl.
79 U.S. Census Bureau, “Census Bureau Releases Estimates of Undercount and Overcount in the 2020 Census,” press
release, March 10, 2022, at https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2022/2020-census-estimates-of-
undercount-and-overcount.html. For further discussion of the undercounting and overcounting issues, as well as
additional discussion of other issues related to the 2020 Census, see Teresa A. Sullivan and Daniel L. Cork, Assessing
the 2020 Census: Final Report, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, October 2023,
https://doi.org/10.17226/27150.
80 America Counts Staff, Census Bureau Today Releases 2020 Census Undercount, Overcount Rates by State, U.S.
Census Bureau, May 19, 2022, https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2022/05/2020-census-undercount-overcount-
rates-by-state.html.
81 U.S. Government Accountability Office, High-Risk Series: Progress on Many High-Risk Areas, While Substantial
Efforts Needed on Others, GAO-17-317, pp. 223-230, February 15, 2017.
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not expected to be fully tested, facing continuing challenges in implementing IT systems, and
facing significant cybersecurity risks to its systems and data.82
GAO on April 20, 2023, removed the 2020 decennial census from the High-Risk List, noting the
following:
The 2020 Decennial Census is being removed because the Census Bureau made progress
in addressing data quality concerns, chartered a high-level governance group, and
implemented priority recommendations.83
GAO identified the following criteria that initially needed improvement and were subsequently
met:
• Leadership commitment: GAO indicated this item had been met by the
thematic assessment of census data quality of the Census Bureau’s initial
COVID-19 response and efforts to modernize operations to address challenges
including declining survey response rates.
• Capacity: GAO indicated this item had been met because of actions the Census
Bureau took to combat misinformation and disinformation threats to the 2020
Census’s integrity and the bureau’s collaboration with the Department of
Homeland Security (DHS) to protect 2020 census systems and data.
• Action plan: GAO indicated this item had been met through developing action
plans in response to GAO recommendations, improving coordination between
field office staff and their partnership programs, and soliciting public comments
for the 2030 decennial census.
• Monitoring: GAO indicated this item had been met through regular monitoring
of GAO recommendations and communication of status in meeting goals.
• Demonstrated progress: GAO indicated this item had been met by curbing
steadily increasing costs of past decades’ decennial censuses and acting on GAO
recommendations.
GAO also indicated that it would monitor 2030 census preparations for any emerging risks.
2030 Decennial Census
Early planning for the 2030 decennial census began in 2019.84 During this period, the Census
Bureau analyzed operational metrics for conducting the survey, assessed early lessons from the
2020 decennial census process, reviewed feedback from stakeholders, and began exploring
potential enhancements to operations. The early planning phase ended in September 2021.
The design selection phase, which began in October 2021, entails initial design research,
soliciting public feedback, and initial design selection. During the initial design research period,
the Census Bureau identifies high-priority research areas and conducts intensive research and
testing on potential enhancements to the survey. The bureau posted a Federal Register notice in

82 Testimony of GAO Director of Strategic Issues Robert Goldenkoff and GAO Director of Information Technology
and Cybersecurity Nick Marinos, in U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental
Affairs, 2020 Census: Actions Needed to Address Key Risks to a Successful Enumeration, 116th Cong., July 16, 2019.
83 U.S. Government Accountability Office, High-Risk Series: Efforts Made to Achieve Progress Need to Be Maintained
and Expanded to Fully Address All Areas, GAO-23-106203, April 20, 2023.
84 “2030 Census,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade/2030/
2030-census-main.html.
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August 2022 that allowed for public comments until November 2022.85 Public comments were
released in March 2023 to CSAC, NAC, and the public. Following this, the Census Bureau
publishes final recommendations and additional design enhancement recommendations, which
guide the initial design selection for the survey. After publishing final recommendations, the
Census Bureau is to test the new design features and develop operational plans, including a 2026
census test and a 2028 dress rehearsal. The Census Bureau has developed a visual timeline to
illustrate this process.86
In August 2023, the Census Bureau announced the establishment of a new federal advisory
committee.87 According to the Census Bureau, this committee is to be made up of members of the
public who represent stakeholder organizations, groups, interests, and viewpoints. Committee
members are to be nominated by the public. The new federal advisory committee is intended to
support the 2030 decennial census by advising on census planning and execution; considering
implications of enumeration strategies; advising on public outreach strategies; and providing
feedback on employee recruitment strategies, among other things.
Funding for the 2030 decennial census began in FY2022 with an appropriation of $151.5
million,88 followed by a $248.7 million appropriation for FY2023.89 The Census Bureau has
requested $408.9 million for FY2024.
Selected Ongoing and Emerging Issues
Several issues related to the Census Bureau may be of interest to Congress. Some of these issues
are long-standing, whereas others have recently emerged with the advent of new technology in
data collection practices.
Survey Nonresponse Bias
The Census Bureau, among other federal statistical agencies, is experiencing an ongoing
downward trend in survey response rates, an issue that was exacerbated by the COVID-19
pandemic. This is evident in ACS response rates for housing units and group quarters, where the
overall response rates have steadily declined since 2010, with a large dip in 2020.90
COVID-19 limited the Census Bureau’s ability to collect 2020 ACS one-year estimate data,
which led the bureau not to initially release these data. Restrictions imposed to limit the spread of
COVID-19 prevented the Census Bureau from collecting in-person data and holding NRFU
operations for the ACS. These restrictions also prevented data collection in group quarters. As a
result, households that responded to the 2020 ACS were those more likely to do so without
prompting or follow-up from the Census Bureau. Nonresponse bias during 2020 ACS one-year
estimate data collection was found in Medicaid users, noncitizens, and individuals with an

85 U.S. Census Bureau, “Soliciting Input or Suggestions on 2030 Census Preliminary Research,” 87 Federal Register
50599, August 17, 2022, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/08/17/2022-17647/soliciting-input-or-
suggestions-on-2030-census-preliminary-research.
86 “2030 Census Planning Timeline,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/programs-
surveys/decennial/2030-census/2030-census-timeline.pdf.
87 U.S. Census Bureau, “2030 Census Advisory Committee,” 88 Federal Register 58236, August 25, 2023,
https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/08/25/2023-18341/2030-census-advisory-committee.
88 P.L. 117-103
89 P.L. 117-328
90 “American Community Response Rates,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/acs/www/methodology/
sample-size-and-data-quality/response-rates/.
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educational attainment below a bachelor’s degree.91 Given these limitations, the bureau released
these 2020 ACS one-year estimate data as experimental data.92 Response rates for subsequent
years of the ACS in 2021 and 2022 have increased to approximately 85% for each year.93
Census Bureau research on response rates to the CPS showed similar declining trends in response
rates, with major dips during peak COVID-19 months.94
Under- and Overcounting
The Census Bureau has historically experienced challenges with under- and overcounting in
certain populations and demographics. The COVID-19 pandemic exacerbated these challenges,
particularly among individuals living in group quarters, such as college dormitories.
Some Members of Congress expressed concerns with the 2020 PES findings of under- and
overcounting in several states.95
The following states had undercounts, according to the 2020 post-enumeration survey:
• Arkansas (-5.04%),
• Florida (-3.48%),
• Illinois (-1.97%),
• Mississippi (-4.11%),
• Tennessee (-4.78%), and
• Texas (-1.92%).
The following states had overcounts, according to the 2020 post-enumeration survey:
• Delaware (+5.45%),
• Hawaii (+6.79%),
• Massachusetts (+2.24%),
• Minnesota (+3.84%),
• Ohio (+1.49%),
• Rhode Island (+5.05%), and
• Utah (+2.59%).
Additionally, the Census Bureau undercounted Hispanic or Latino (-4.99%), American Indian or
Alaska Native (-0.91%), and Black or African American (-3.3%) populations during the decennial

91 Hyon B. Shin et al., An Assessment of the COVID-19 Pandemic’s Impact on the 2020 ACS 1-Year Data, U.S. Census
Bureau, ACS Research and Evaluation Report Memorandum Series #ACS21-RER-04, October 27, 2021,
https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/working-papers/2021/acs/2021_CensusBureau_01.pdf.
92 “2020 ACS 1-year Estimates,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/acs/technical-
documentation/table-and-geography-changes/2020/1-year.html.
93 “ACS Response Rates,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/acs/www/methodology/sample-size-and-data-
quality/response-rates/.
94 Jonathan Rothbaum and Adam Bee, How Has the Pandemic Continued to Affect Survey Response? Using
Administrative Data to Evaluate Nonresponse in the 2022 Current Population Survey Annual Social and Economic
Supplement, U.S. Census Bureau, September 13, 2022, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/research-matters/
2022/09/how-did-the-pandemic-affect-survey-response.html.
95 America Counts Staff, Census Bureau Today Releases 2020 Census Undercount, Overcount Rates by State, U.S.
Census Bureau, May 19, 2022, https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2022/05/2020-census-undercount-overcount-
rates-by-state.html.
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census. The non-Hispanic White population was overcounted by 1.64%. The Census Bureau’s
analysis of the PES further found that these under- and overcounts were not outside the range of
variability found in past decades. While some under- and overcounts across demographics were
statistically significant, the PES did not find a statistically significant overcount or undercount of
the total population.96
Past decennial censuses had similar issues with under- and overcounting.97 The non-Hispanic
white population was overcounted in 2010 and 2000 by 0.8% and 1.1%, respectively. The Black
population was undercounted in 2010 and 2000 by -2.1% and -1.8%, respectively; the Hispanic
population was also undercounted in those years by -1.5% and -0.7%, respectively. The American
Indian or Alaska Native population on reservations was undercounted by 4.9% in 2010 and
overcounted by 0.9% in 2000; the American Indian and Alaska Native population off reservations
was overcounted by 3.9% and undercounted by 0.6% in 2010 and 2000, respectively.
In the event of potential inaccurate counting of the population of geographical units during a
decennial census, the Census Bureau offers the Census Count Question Resolution (CQR)
operation.98 This operation, originally initiated following the 2000 decennial census, provides
eligible tribal, state, and local government units an opportunity to submit a CQR case for the
Census Bureau to review.99 A CQR case reviews data collected and processed during the
decennial census; it does not conduct a recount. If errors are found during a review, housing and
population counts are corrected, followed by redistribution of revised counts. Apportionment
counts, redistricting data, and other decennial census products are not changed following a CQR
case review. The deadline to submit CQR cases in response to the 2020 decennial census was
June 30, 2023.
With unprecedented challenges in counting group quarters during the 2020 decennial census
because of the COVID-19 pandemic, the Census Bureau introduced the new Post-Census Group
Quarters Review (PCGQR).100 The PCGQR allowed government units to request review of group
quarters that they believed were not accurately counted. The PCGQR follows the same general
standards as the CQR.
Though not a route to address under- or overcounting, a special census can be conducted at the
request of a government unit if local officials find there has been considerable change in
population size or demographic composition following a decennial census.101 The special census
program is initiated and funded by the requesting governmental unit. The results from the special
census will update Census Bureau population estimates, which are conducted annually beginning
with the most recent decennial census. The purpose of the population estimates program is to

96 U.S. Census Bureau, “Census Bureau Releases Estimates of Undercount and Overcount in the 2020 Census,” press
release, March 10, 2022, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2022/2020-census-estimates-of-undercount-
and-overcount.html.
97 U.S. Census Bureau, “Census Bureau Releases Estimates of Undercount and Overcount in the 2010 Census,” press
release, May 22, 2012, https://www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/2010_census/cb12-95.html.
98 “Count Question Resolution Operation (CQR),” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/about/policies/quality/
corrections/cqr.html.
99 U.S. Census Bureau, “The Census 2000 Count Question Resolution Program,” 66 Federal Register 35588, July 6,
2001, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2001/07/06/01-16868/the-census-2000-count-question-resolution-
program.
100 “2020 Post-Census Group Quarters Review (PCGQR),” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-
surveys/decennial-census/decade/2020/planning-management/evaluate/pcgqr.html.
101 “Special Census Program,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/specialcensus.html.
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update population estimates in the years following a decennial census for use in allocation of
funds to state, county, and local governments.
Use of Administrative Records for Statistical Purposes
Administrative records are microdata records, or information from the individual level of
respondents, collected and maintained by a public or private entity to carry out the basic
administrative processes of a program. Administrative records are not necessarily collected for
statistical purposes. The Census Bureau considers using administrative records to be
advantageous because doing so reduces respondent burden and data-collection costs, creates new
data products, and increases the research potential of census data.102
Examples of administrative records include individual data, such as social security numbers and
income tax return data; business identifying information, such as descriptions of operating,
financial, ownership, and other characteristics; and address data, such as latitude or longitude
points, telephone numbers, and address information. The Census Bureau is increasingly
incorporating administrative records to supplement survey responses to relieve respondent
burden, support more complete data, and reduce enumeration costs.
The Census Bureau has regularly used administrative records from other government agencies to
improve the accuracy of bureau statistics, and did so in the 2020 decennial census.103
Authorization for the Census Bureau to use administrative records is granted in statute.104
During preparation for 2020 decennial census operations, the bureau used administrative records
to determine methods of initial contact for respondents and advertising strategies by evaluating
demographic characteristics to determine which methods of initial contact or advertising were
most likely to elicit survey completion.105
The bureau also used administrative records to support NRFU operations when it was not
possible to obtain survey responses directly from households. If a household did not provide an
initial response online, by phone, or by mail and an enumerator attempted a NRFU—or if the
household provided incomplete information—the Census Bureau attempted to utilize
administrative records to supplement any missing information.
The Census Bureau used a variety of records, including prior census survey data, such as data
from the 2010 decennial census or the most recent ACS; federal tax return information from the
IRS; the Medicare enrollment database; Indian Health Service data; U.S. Postal Service records;
and Social Security Administration records. These records were only used if the Census Bureau
had high confidence in the accuracy of the data, which often meant corroborating the data with
multiple source agencies.

102 Dave McClure, Robert Santos, and Shiva Kooragayala, Administrative Records in the 2020 U.S. Census, Urban
Institute, May 2017, https://www.urban.org/sites/default/files/publication/90446/census_ar_report.pdf.
103 Thomas Mule, Administrative Records and the 2020 Census, U.S. Census Bureau, April 1, 2021,
https://www.census.gov/newsroom/blogs/random-samplings/2021/04/administrative_recor.html.
104 13 U.S.C. §6
105 Karen D. Deaver, Administrative Data Used in the 2020 Census, U.S. Census Bureau, August 11, 2021,
https://www2.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial/2020/program-management/planning-docs/administrative-data-
used-in-the-2020-census.pdf.
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Revisions to Race and Ethnicity Data Collection
On January 27, 2023, OMB introduced proposed revisions to the 1997 Statistical Policy Directive
(SPD) No. 15: Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and
Ethnicity.106 The proposed revisions would combine race and ethnicity categories into a single
question, include a new racial designation for Middle Eastern or North African (MENA), and
require detailed racial data collection to be the default in federal surveys. The proposal was
published in the Federal Register and opened for public comments in compliance with the PRA
of 1995. These standards would be implemented in Census Bureau surveys following final
approval from OMB.
OMB cited the reasoning behind this proposal to revise SPD 15 as increasing racial and ethnic
diversity, a growing number of people who identify as more than one race or ethnicity, and
changing immigration and migration patterns. OMB will make the final decision regarding
changes to SPD 15, which is expected to be completed in summer 2024.
Confidentiality and its Impact on Data Quality
Maintaining the privacy of survey respondents’ data remains a concern for many Members of
Congress and the general public. Although several privacy-preserving data sharing analytic
methods exist, they have varying attributes, which include impacts on data quality.
To manage large amounts of identifiable data collected during the 2020 decennial census, the
Census Bureau developed a disclosure avoidance framework using differential privacy.107 The
Census Bureau sought to reduce the likelihood of reconstruction of identifiable data from census
products by using differentially private noise infusion. This process increases the difficulty of
determining if an individual’s data were part of the original dataset or not by adding made-up
information (i.e., noise) into the data product, complicating reconstruction efforts.
Data products released from the Census Bureau utilize this differentially private noise infusion,
which differs from the master records collected during surveys. The Census Bureau uses a
governance structure of discretionarily budgeting levels of noise injected into data sets. If too
much noise is introduced, the data set will be of no use; if there is too little noise, the data are
unprotected. Perfectly accurate data exist and are retained as a master data set by the Census
Bureau; publication of these data is prohibited under statute.108
After the Census Bureau announced that it would use differential privacy for anonymizing 2020
decennial census data, the State of Alabama initiated a lawsuit challenging this decision in March
2021.109 In this complaint, Alabama alleged that the Census Bureau would “provide the States
with purposefully flawed population tabulations” by using differential privacy. An additional 16

106 Office of Management and Budget, “Initial Proposals for Updating OMB’s Race and Ethnicity Statistical
Standards,” 88 Federal Register 5375, January 27, 2023, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2023/01/27/2023-
01635/initial-proposals-for-updating-ombs-race-and-ethnicity-statistical-standards.
107 “2020 Decennial Census: Processing the Count: Disclosure Avoidance Modernization,” U.S. Census Bureau,
https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/decennial-census/decade/2020/planning-management/process/disclosure-
avoidance.html; and U.S. Census Bureau, Disclosure Avoidance for the 2020 Census: An Introduction, November
2021, https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/2020/2020-census-disclosure-avoidance-handbook.pdf.
108 13 U.S.C. §9 and §214.
109 See Alabama v. U.S. Dep’t of Com., No. 21-CV-211, 2021 WL 2668810 (M.D. Ala. June 29, 2021).
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states joined this lawsuit as amici curiae in support of Alabama.110 In September 2021, Alabama
dropped the lawsuit.111
While using differential privacy is new, the Census Bureau has used a disclosure avoidance
system since the 1930 decennial census.112 The bureau introduced differential privacy in 2020,
when it determined that advances in computers combined with the use of commercially available
databases can reconstruct previously disassociated, sensitive individual data.113
The old system for data privacy was a data-swapping system that was introduced in 1990. It
involved swapping the record of one census tract with another to mask individual data in the
product. A Census Bureau experiment that used published 2010 census data tables to reconstruct
the dataset of respondents further indicated that a new disclosure avoidance system was needed to
keep up with modern privacy protection needs.
The Census Bureau finds the advantages of differential privacy are as follows:
• Disclosure risk can be assessed and quantified prior to a product’s creation.
• Disclosure risk can be budgeted across all products.
• Disclosure risk can be tracked across successive data releases.
• Data can be published, analyzed, and combined with other data without
increasing risk of disclosure.
• Differential privacy is more conducive to transparency with public access to
governance decisions, programing code, settings, and summaries of noise and
bias.114
The Census Bureau has also identified limitations and challenges to the differential privacy
system:115
• Data collected from small demographic groups may contain too much noise for
particular use.
• Infusion of statistical noise may lead to implausible results, such as a block with
more housing units than people occupying those units.
Use of Artificial Intelligence
The Census Bureau has started using artificial intelligence (AI) to help computers discover
patterns in data without using explicit programing, as a means of improving efficiency in working
with large sets of data from several sources.116

110 Alaska, Arkansas, Florida, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mississippi, Montana, Nebraska, New Mexico, Ohio,
Oklahoma, South Carolina, Texas, Utah, and West Virginia
111 See Alabama V. U.S. Dep’t of Com., No. 3:21-CV-211-RAHECM-KCN (MD. Ala. September 9, 2021).
112 Laura McKenna, Disclosure Avoidance Techniques Used for the 1970 through 2010 Decennial Censuses of
Population and Housing, U.S. Census Bureau, November 2018, https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/
working-papers/2018/adrm/Disclosure%20Avoidance%20Techniques%20for%20the%201970-2010%20Censuses.pdf.
113 “The Census Bureau’s Simulated Reconstruction-Abetted Re-identification Attack on the 2010 Census,” U.S.
Census Bureau, May 7, 2021, https://www.census.gov/data/academy/webinars/2021/disclosure-avoidance-series/
simulated-reconstruction-abetted-re-identification-attack-on-the-2010-census.html.
114 Code base is available from https://github.com/uscensusbureau.
115 U.S. Census Bureau, Disclosure Avoidance for the 2020 Census: An Introduction, November 2021, p. 2.
116 “Machine Learning,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/topics/research/data-science/about-machine-
learning.html.
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For example, AI is being used to support the Economic Census by assisting in ensuring
respondents receive appropriate questions for their businesses with the North American Industry
Classification System and by providing a smart search function for the North American Product
Classification System.117
The Census Bureau has set some short-term (FY2021-FY2023) and longer-term (FY2023 and
beyond) goals for implementing machine learning for data processing.118

117 Tandace Wilson, 2022 Economic Census: Keeping Up with the Times, U.S. Census Bureau, August 15, 2023,
https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2023/08/2022-econ-census-whats-new.html.
118 “Record Linkage & Machine Learning,” U.S. Census Bureau, https://www.census.gov/topics/research/stat-research/
expertise/record-linkage.html.
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Appendix. Relevant Committee Hearings from
Senate HSGAC and House Oversight during the
114th through the 118th Congresses
Table A-1. Recent Committee Hearings
Committee
Date
Title
Senate HSGAC
Jul. 25, 2022
Reviewing the 2020 Census: Local Perspectives in Michigan

Senate HSGAC
Jul. 15, 2021
Nominations of Robert L. Santos and Ed Gonzales

Senate HSGAC
Mar. 23, 2021 The 2020 Census and Current Activities of the U.S. Census Bureau

House Oversight
Dec. 3, 2020
Ensuring the 2020 Census Count is Complete and Accurate

House Oversight
Sep. 10, 2020
Providing the Census Bureau with the Time to Produce a Complete and

Accurate Census
House Oversight
Jul. 29, 2020
Counting Every Person: Safeguarding the 2020 Census Against the Trump

Administration’s Unconstitutional Attacks
House Oversight
Feb. 12, 2020
With Census Bureau Director, Dr. Steven Dil ingham

House Oversight
Jan. 9, 2020
Reaching Hard-to-Count Communities in the 2020 Census

Senate HSGAC
Jul. 16, 2019
2020 Census: Conducting a Secure and Accurate Count

House Oversight
May 28, 2019
Getting Counted: The Importance of the Census to State and Local

Communities Field Hearing
Senate HSGAC
Oct. 31, 2017 2020 Census: Examining Cost Overruns, Information Security, and Accuracy

House Oversight
Oct. 12, 2017 Hearing on the 2020 Census

House Oversight
Jun. 9, 2016
Census 2020: Examining the Readiness of Key Aspects of the Census

Bureau’s 2020 Census Preparation
Source: CRS search of “Congressional Hearings,” GovInfo, U.S. Government Publishing Office,
https://www.govinfo.gov/app/col ection/chrg.

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Author Information

Taylor R. Knoedl

Analyst in American National Government

Disclaimer
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under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
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