Trafficking in Persons: Grants for Victim Services in the United States

Trafficking in Persons: Grants for Victim Services in the United States

Trafficking in Persons: Grants for Victim
March 10, 2023
Services in the United States
Kristin Finklea
Trafficking in persons (TIP), also known as human trafficking, occurs across the United States
Specialist in Domestic
and around the world. Traffickers exploit vulnerable individuals for commercial sex and forced
Security
labor in a variety of legal and illegal industries. For over two decades, Congress has legislated to

counter human trafficking in the United States. Through the Trafficking Victims Protection Act
of 2000 (TVPA, Division A of P.L. 106-386) and its subsequent reauthorizations, related anti-

trafficking legislation, and administrative initiatives, the federal role in countering trafficking
continues to be centered on the core pillars of preventing trafficking, prosecuting perpetrators, and protecting victims.
In 2021, the White House issued a National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking, which outlined a variety of principles
and associated priority actions to reinforce the three pillars of the nation’s anti-trafficking efforts. Under the protection pillar,
the plan delineates specific principles tailored to supporting trafficking victims. These involve identifying and engaging with
victims in an equitable victim-centered, trauma-informed, and culturally competent manner; safeguarding victims from being
inappropriately incarcerated, fined, or otherwise penalized for unlawful acts committed as a direct result of being trafficked;
improving access to immigration benefits and options so foreign national victims can receive efficient and effective
assistance; expanding and improving assistance to victims encountered by federal law enforcement agencies; seeking
financial remedies for victims; and offering or connecting victims to social services (including physical and mental health
care, shelters and safe housing, education, and employment, among other forms of assistance) to increase short- and long-
term stability.
With respect to offering and connecting trafficking victims to social services, several federal departments have programs or
administer grants that are designed to support and provide ongoing protection and services to trafficking victims. The
Department of Justice (DOJ) and the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) are the primary departments
administering grants for trafficking victim assistance.
 DOJ. The TVPA authorizes DOJ to make grants to develop, expand, or strengthen programs for victims of
human trafficking. Among other programs, DOJ administers the Services for Victims of Human
Trafficking program, which supports grantees that are (1) developing capacity to serve victims, (2)
enhancing victim access to comprehensive services, or (3) providing specialized services for human
trafficking victims. DOJ also administers the Enhanced Collaborative Model (ECM) Task Force to Combat
Human Trafficking program, which supports task forces comprised of victim service providers, law
enforcement, trafficking survivors, and other governmental and nongovernmental partners. Funding
supports new or expanding ECM task forces that work to provide a multidisciplinary approach to delivering
diverse and appropriate services to trafficking victims.
 HHS. The TVPA directs HHS to expand benefits and services to trafficking victims in the United States.
HHS administers trafficking victim services grant programs for both U.S. and foreign national victims of
trafficking. Under the Domestic Victims of Human Trafficking program, grantees may use funding to
provide comprehensive case management, direct services, and referrals to services for domestic individuals
(U.S. citizens and lawful permanent residents [LPRs]) who have experienced trafficking. The Trafficking
Victim Services Program funds case management services for foreign nationals who have experienced
trafficking and are pursuing HHS victim certification—a process that makes noncitizen victims eligible for
certain benefits and services (for which they are ineligible without certification).
Data on victims served by providers receiving federal trafficking victim assistance grants indicate that there may be
disparities in populations served; for instance, data on victims served by grantees from DOJ’s and HHS’s trafficking victim
assistance programs indicate that more women than men are served, and more victims of sex trafficking than labor trafficking
are served. Additionally, available data on victims served with federal victim assistance funding focus more on the quantity
of victims served and less on the quality of the services delivered and the outcomes for victims receiving services. As such,
as policymakers examine federal efforts to provide services for victims of trafficking, they may question whether this
assistance is reaching victims equitably and effectively.
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Contents
Conceptualizing Human Trafficking ............................................................................................... 1
Federal Role in Countering Human Trafficking .............................................................................. 2
The Federal Role in Protections for Victims ................................................................................... 3
Grants for Victim Services ........................................................................................................ 4
DOJ Grants for Trafficking Victim Services ....................................................................... 4
HHS Grants for Trafficking Victim Services ...................................................................... 6
Congressional Considerations ......................................................................................................... 7
Comparing Services for Sex Trafficking and Labor Trafficking Victims ................................. 8
Evaluating Victim Assistance: Output vs. Outcome ................................................................. 9

Contacts
Author Information ........................................................................................................................ 10

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Trafficking in Persons: Grants for Victim Services in the United States

rafficking in persons (TIP), also known as human trafficking, occurs across the United
States and around the world. Traffickers exploit vulnerable individuals for commercial sex
T and forced labor in a variety of legal and illegal industries. Although some estimates exist,
comprehensive data on the incidence of human trafficking within the United States are not
available.1 Some metrics suggest that more foreign victims may be involved in labor trafficking
than in sex trafficking, and that more U.S. citizen victims may be involved in sex trafficking than
labor trafficking.2 In addition, the federal government prosecutes more individuals for sex
trafficking than for labor trafficking offenses.3
For over two decades, Congress has been legislating to counter human trafficking in the United
States. The Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000 (TVPA, Division A of P.L. 106-386) and
its subsequent reauthorizations have contained elements aimed at preventing human trafficking,
strengthening criminal laws relevant to investigating and prosecuting traffickers, and providing
protections and services for victims. Most recently, Congress passed legislation, including the
Trafficking Victims Prevention and Protection Reauthorization Act of 2022 (P.L. 117-348) and the
Abolish Trafficking Reauthorization Act of 2022 (P.L. 117-347), intended to further enhance the
federal government’s anti-trafficking efforts. These acts contained provisions that amended and
reauthorized activities under the purview of the TVPA—including grants to support services for
victims in the United States.
This report provides a brief background on human trafficking and the federal government’s role
in countering it. It specifically discusses the federal role in providing protection and services for
victims and outlines federal grant programs authorized under the TVPA that provide funding for
victim assistance. The report also includes considerations for policymakers as they evaluate the
current landscape of victim services grants. While recognizing that there are important nuances
between the terms, this report uses the terms victim and survivor in reference to individuals who
have been trafficked.4
Conceptualizing Human Trafficking
Human trafficking in the United States is broadly conceptualized in two categories: sex
trafficking and labor trafficking. Federal statutes do not formally define human trafficking or
trafficking in persons. Rather, the TVPA defines severe forms of trafficking in persons as
(A) sex trafficking in which a commercial sex act is induced by force, fraud, or coercion,
or in which the person induced to perform such act has not attained 18 years of age; or

1 For a discussion of available data sources on human trafficking, see CRS Report R47211, Criminal Justice Data:
Human Trafficking.
2 U.S. Department of State, 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report: United States, https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-
trafficking-in-persons-report/united-states/. This is based on foreign national victims receiving trafficking victim
services provided by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS).
3 Ibid.
4 As outlined by the Department of Justice (DOJ), “[b]oth terms are important and have different implications when
used in the context of victim advocacy and service provision. For example, the term ‘victim’ has legal implications
within the criminal justice process and refers to an individual who has suffered harm as a result of criminal conduct.
The laws that give individuals particular rights and legal standing within the criminal justice system use the term
‘victim.’ Federal law enforcement uses the term ‘victim’ in its professional capacity. ‘Survivor’ is a term used widely
in service providing organizations to recognize the strength and courage it takes to overcome victimization.” DOJ,
Office for Victims of Crime (OVC), Human Trafficking Task Force e-Guide: Understanding Human Trafficking,
Victim-Centered Approach.
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(B) the recruitment, harboring, transportation, provision or obtaining of a person for labor
or services, through the use of force, fraud, or coercion for the purpose of subjection to
involuntary servitude, peonage, debt bondage, or slavery.5
Under the TVPA, force, fraud, or coercion are necessary elements to establish trafficking of an
adult victim, but are not necessary elements to establish sex trafficking of a victim under age 18.
It is not necessary to prove that people have moved across jurisdictional boundaries to establish
that human trafficking has occurred. The term human trafficking is often used interchangeably
with human smuggling, but they are distinct. As the U.S. Department of Homeland Security
(DHS) has noted, “[h]uman trafficking does not require crossing a border. Human trafficking
victims have been exploited by their trafficker for commercial sex acts or labor. By contrast,
human smugglers engage in the crime of bringing people into the United States, or unlawfully
transporting and harboring people already in the United States, in deliberate evasion of
immigration law. In some situations, human smuggling may result in human trafficking.”6
Federal Role in Countering Human Trafficking
Through the TVPA, related anti-trafficking legislation, and administrative initiatives, the federal
role in countering trafficking continues to be centered on the core themes of prevention,
prosecution, and protection.7
Prevention. Efforts to prevent human trafficking are broad; they range from expanding
community outreach and awareness training about vulnerable populations to reducing demand for
sex and labor trafficking. Prevention activities may be conceptualized in three categories:
 Primary prevention. This includes efforts to prevent exploitation before
individuals are victimized.
 Secondary prevention. This includes efforts to identify trafficking victims and
provide an immediate response, such as emergency and medical care, to address
short-term consequences.
 Tertiary prevention. This includes longer-term efforts such as providing
rehabilitative services that aim to prevent further victimization.8
As these categories indicate, in addition to federal efforts to prevent exploitation before
individuals are victimized, other efforts are aimed at identifying human trafficking victims in
order to rescue and protect them from further exploitation. For instance, a number of federal
agencies administer public awareness campaigns to help recognize the signs of trafficking,
identify potential victims, and respond appropriately.9 These efforts intersect directly with
activities to provide services and ongoing protection to support trafficking victims.
Prosecution. Most federal human trafficking cases are investigated by the Federal Bureau of
Investigation (FBI) and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement, Homeland Security

5 22 U.S.C. §7102.
6 U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Department of Homeland Security Strategy to Combat Human
Trafficking, the Importation of Goods Produced with Forced Labor, and Child Sexual Exploitation, January 2020, p. 5.
7 White House, The National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking, December 2021.
8 For more information about primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention, see HHS, Information Memorandum:
Definitions and Principles to Inform Human Trafficking Prevention, April 24, 2019.
9 DHS’s Blue Campaign is one such example. More information on the Blue Campaign is available at
https://www.dhs.gov/blue-campaign.
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Investigations (ICE HSI), who coordinate with other agencies as appropriate. The U.S. Attorneys
prosecute these cases.10
Protection. Several departments have programs or administer grants that are designed to support
and provide ongoing protection and services to trafficking victims. (The Department of Justice
[DOJ] and the Department of Health and Human Services [HHS] are the primary departments
administering grants for trafficking victim assistance.) Such assistance may include temporary
housing, independent living skills, cultural orientation, transportation, job training, mental health
counseling, and legal assistance. Some observers may view these protection activities as part of
tertiary prevention.
The Federal Role in Protections for Victims
Since the enactment of the TVPA, there has been greater awareness of the nature of human
trafficking and breadth of victims’ needs. These needs vary by individual and may include food,
shelter, and clothing; medical, mental health, financial, and legal services; education and job
training; immigration protections; and others. An enhanced understanding of human trafficking
and its impact on victims has engaged a range of entities—including law enforcement, service
providers, schools, child welfare, workforce development, and various industry sectors—in
countering trafficking and providing victim assistance. Nonetheless, some analysts and advocates
have noted gaps remain in services for victims.11
In 2021, the White House issued a National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking, which
outlined a variety of principles and associated priority actions to reinforce the three pillars of the
nation’s anti-trafficking efforts: prevention, prosecution, and protection. Under the protection
pillar, the plan delineates specific principles tailored to supporting trafficking victims. These
involve the following:
 identifying and engaging with victims in an equitable victim-centered, trauma-
informed, and culturally competent manner;12
 safeguarding victims from being inappropriately incarcerated, fined, or otherwise
penalized for unlawful acts committed as a direct result of being trafficked;
 improving access to immigration benefits and options so foreign national victims
can receive efficient and effective assistance with recovering from their
victimization;

10 More information on DOJ’s efforts to counter human trafficking is available at https://www.justice.gov/
humantrafficking/department-justice-components. More information on the FBI’s role in investigating human
trafficking is available at https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/violent-crime/human-trafficking. For information on ICE
HSI’s role in investigating human trafficking, see https://www.ice.gov/features/human-trafficking. In addition to
federal investigations, human trafficking is also investigated at the state and local level. Every state has enacted laws
criminalizing human trafficking in some say. For more, see National Conference of State Legislatures, Human
Trafficking State Laws, August 12, 2020. The FBI collects some data on human trafficking offenses known to law
enforcement through its Uniform Crime Reporting Program. For more information, see CRS Report R47211, Criminal
Justice Data: Human Trafficking.
11 See, for example, State Department, 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report: United States, https://www.state.gov/
reports/2022-trafficking-in-persons-report/united-states/. See also Polaris Project, Human Trafficking Issue Brief:
Victim Assistance, Fall 2015.
12 These terms are defined in White House, The National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking, December 2021,
pp. 59–60.
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 expanding and improving assistance to victims encountered by federal law
enforcement agencies;
 seeking financial remedies for victims; and
 offering or connecting victims to social services (including health and mental
health care, shelters and safe housing, education, and employment, among other
forms of assistance) to increase short- and long-term stability.13
These principles reflect an evolution in understanding the specific needs of trafficking victims. In
line with this recognition, DOJ and HHS announced the need to develop standards of care
specific to trafficking victims.14 While DOJ’s Office for Victims of Crime (OVC) has model
standards of care for serving victims of crime generally,15 anti-trafficking experts have considered
a need for standards specific for trafficking victim service providers. OVC awarded a cooperative
agreement to Freedom Network USA to help develop these standards.16 Once they are developed,
policymakers may examine the role these standards may play in federal agency victim assistance
grant solicitations.
Grants for Victim Services
A major aspect of U.S. anti-trafficking efforts is victim assistance—providing immediate services
when victims are identified and helping them recover from their victimization. The TVPA has
been the chief legislative vehicle authorizing these grants. In addition to funding grants for victim
services, the federal government provides other forms of support for trafficking victims, such as
the coordination of victim assistance by federal law enforcement17 as well as immigration relief
for certain noncitizen trafficking victims.18 This section highlights TVPA-authorized grants for
victim services in the United States, administered by DOJ and HHS.
DOJ Grants for Trafficking Victim Services
Through the TVPA and its subsequent reauthorizations, Congress authorized DOJ to administer
grants for trafficking victim services in the United States. Specifically, “the Attorney General may
make grants to states, Indian tribes, units of local government, and nonprofit, nongovernmental
victims’ service organizations to develop, expand, or strengthen victim service programs for

13 White House, The National Action Plan to Combat Human Trafficking, December 2021.
14 DOJ, OVC, Podcast Transcript: Standards of Care for Human Trafficking Survivors, https://ovc.ojp.gov/program/
human-trafficking/standards-care-human-trafficking-survivors-transcript.pdf.
15 OVC, Achieving Excellence: Model Standards for Serving Victims & Survivors of Crime, 2016.
16 OVC, Developing Standards of Care for Anti-Trafficking Service Providers, https://ovc.ojp.gov/program/human-
trafficking/standards-care-human-trafficking-survivors-transcript.pdf. OVC noted that draft standards will be put out
for public comment so that when they are finalized, all voices will have been incorporated. See OVC, Podcast
Transcript: Standards of Care for Human Trafficking Survivors, https://ovc.ojp.gov/program/human-trafficking/
standards-care-human-trafficking-survivors-transcript.pdf.
17 For example, for information on ICE’s Victim Assistance Program, see https://www.ice.gov/partnerships-centers/
vap, and for information on the FBI’s victim specialists, see https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/violent-crime/human-
trafficking.
18 The TVPA created a new nonimmigrant category, known as T status or the T-visa, for aliens who are victims of
severe forms of trafficking in persons. For a detailed discussion of immigration relief that may be available to foreign
national victims of trafficking, see CRS Report R46584, Immigration Relief for Victims of Trafficking; and CRS Report
R47404, Immigration Relief for Noncitizen Crime Victims.
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victims of human trafficking.”19 Using this authority, DOJ, through the OVC, funds a range of
victim service grant programs, including the following:20
 The Services for Victims of Human Trafficking program supports grantees that
are (1) developing capacity to serve victims, (2) enhancing victim access to
comprehensive services, or (3) providing specialized services for human
trafficking victims. A range of services are funded through this program,
including information and referral services; personal advocacy and
accompaniment services; emotional support, safety, and health services; shelter
and housing services; civil and criminal justice system assistance; and education,
employment, and life skills services.21
 The Enhanced Collaborative Model (ECM) Task Force to Combat Human
Trafficking program supports task forces comprised of victim service providers,
law enforcement, trafficking survivors, and other governmental and
nongovernmental partners. Funding supports new or expanding ECM task forces
that work to provide a multidisciplinary approach to delivering diverse and
appropriate services to trafficking victims. ECM task forces also train law
enforcement and stakeholders on victim identification and victim-centered
investigations.22 Similar to the Services for Victims of Human Trafficking
program, services supported by ECM task force funding include information and
referral services; personal advocacy and accompaniment services; emotional
support, safety, and health services; shelter and housing services; civil and
criminal justice system assistance; and education, employment, and life skills
services.
OVC also supports a number of more nuanced trafficking victim services grants, such as a
program focused on providing housing assistance for victims and one focused on serving minor
victims of labor trafficking. 23
Congress provides funding for trafficking victim services grants through annual appropriations.
The Consolidated Appropriations Act, FY2023 (P.L. 117-328) provided $95.0 million to DOJ for
trafficking victim services under the State and Local Law Enforcement Assistance account.24
Additional financial support for these grants comes from the Domestic Trafficking Victims’ Fund.

19 22 U.S.C. §7105(b)(2).
20 DOJ, Justice Department Awards Over $90 Million to Combat Human Trafficking and Support Victims, October 26,
2022.
21 For more information on specific services allowable under this grant, see OVC, OVC FY2022 Services for Victims of
Human Trafficking, grant number O-OVC-2022-171307.
22 For more information, see OVC, OVC FY2022 Enhanced Collaborative Model Task Force to Combat Human
Trafficking, grant number O-OVC-2022-171264.
23 For more information on the full range of grants supported by DOJ in FY2022, see DOJ, Justice Department Awards
over 90 Million to Combat Human Trafficking and Support Victims, October 26, 2022.
24 The act specifies that funding is “for victim services programs for victims of trafficking, as authorized by section
107(b)(2) of the Victims of Trafficking Act [TVPA], by the TVPRA of 2005 [Trafficking Victims Protection
Reauthorization Act of 2005; P.L. 109-164], or programs authorized under P.L. 113-4 [Violence Against Women
Reauthorization Act of 2013].”
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Domestic Trafficking Victims’ Fund
The Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015 (JVTA; P.L. 114-22) established an additional $5,000 penalty
assessment on anyone convicted of certain federal trafficking-related offenses including peonage, slavery, or
trafficking in persons; sexual abuse; sexual exploitation and other child abuse; transportation for il egal sexual
activity; and certain human smuggling offenses. These monies are deposited into the Domestic Trafficking Victims'
Fund (established by the act). The fund is to be administered by the Attorney General, in consultation with the
Secretary of HHS. Money from the fund may be used to support certain existing grant programs authorized by the
TVPA or to enhance programming for victims of child pornography served under the Victims of Child Abuse Act.
There is a prohibition on the use of monies from the fund for medical items or health care services. Instead, an
amount equal to that col ected by the special assessments is to be transferred into the fund from money
appropriated for community health centers (but not less than $5 mil ion or more than $30 mil ion); these funds
may be used for grants supporting medical items or health care or services for victims served under the previously
referenced TVPA grant programs and for victims of child pornography.
The fund was most recently reauthorized by the Abolish Trafficking Reauthorization Act of 2022 (P.L. 117-347).
The act removed sunset provisions that had previously been attached to the fund. In FY2022, $1,552,525 in
penalty assessments was deposited into the fund; in addition, $5 mil ion was transferred into the fund from HHS,
as is done each fiscal year.25
HHS Grants for Trafficking Victim Services
Through the TVPA, Congress directed HHS to “expand benefits and services to victims of severe
forms of trafficking in persons in the United States.”26 Under this directive, HHS’s Office on
Trafficking in Persons (OTIP) administers trafficking victim services grant programs for both
domestic and foreign national victims of trafficking.
 Under the Domestic Victims of Human Trafficking Program, grantees may use
funding to provide comprehensive case management, direct services, and
referrals to services for domestic individuals (U.S. citizens and lawful permanent
residents [LPRs]) who have experienced trafficking. Services may include short-
and long-term housing options, substance abuse treatment, mental health
counseling, educational opportunities, job training and skills development, legal
advocacy, and financial advocacy and counseling. HHS notes that these grants
promote trauma-informed and victim-centered services.27
 The Trafficking Victim Services Program funds case management services for
foreign nationals who have experienced trafficking and are pursuing HHS victim
certification (see the text box below). Grantees can help with case management,
referrals, and emergency assistance; they may also assist certified individuals and
certain family members with navigating federal and state benefits and services
systems. Further, they may help victims access housing, employability services,
mental health screening and therapy, medical care, and legal services.28

25 Data provided to CRS by DOJ, February 24, 2023.
26 22 U.S.C. §7105(b)(1)(B).
27 For more information, see HHS, OTIP, Victim Assistance: Victim Assistance Grants; see also HHS, OTIP, Fact
Sheet: Domestic Victims of Human Trafficking (DVHT) Program.
28 See HHS, OTIP, Victim Assistance: Victim Assistance Grants.
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Victim Services: Certification for Noncitizen Trafficking Victims
Because noncitizens are ineligible for certain public benefits, the TVPA established a certification process through
which noncitizen victims of trafficking who are certified as such are eligible for certain benefits and services.29 (U.S.
citizen and LPR trafficking victims are not required to be certified in order to be eligible for these benefits and
services.) The HHS Secretary, after consultation with the Secretary of Homeland Security, is responsible for
issuing certification letters to adult noncitizen victims of trafficking.30
Certification by HHS affirms that a victim (1) is wil ing to assist in every reasonable way in the investigation and
prosecution of severe forms of trafficking in persons and (2) has made a bona fide application for a T-visa that has
not been denied, or has been granted continued presence in the United States by the Secretary of Homeland
Security to effectuate the prosecution of traffickers in persons.31 Certification allows these noncitizen trafficking
victims access to services including housing, medical care, monetary assistance, employment, education, and
programs providing multiple needs assistance.32
Like DOJ’s victim services programs, Congress funds HHS’s trafficking victim services grants
through annual appropriations. Funding is allocated from HHS’s Refugee and Entrant assistance
account. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, FY2023 (P.L. 117-328) provided funding for
activities authorized under a number of acts, including Section 235 of the William Wilberforce
Trafficking Victims Protection Reauthorization Act of 2008 (TVPRA; P.L. 110-457) and the
TVPA.33 Similar to the DOJ grants for victim services, additional funding for HHS trafficking
victim services grants comes from the Domestic Trafficking Victims’ Fund.
Congressional Considerations
Data on victims served by providers receiving federal trafficking victim assistance grants
indicates that there may be disparities in populations served; for instance, data on victims served
by grantees from DOJ’s and HHS’s trafficking victim assistance programs indicates that more
women than men are served, and more victims of sex trafficking than labor trafficking are
served.34 Additionally, available data on victims served with federal victim assistance funding
focus more on the quantity of victims served and less on the quality of services and outcomes for
individuals receiving services. As such, as policymakers examine federal efforts to provide
services for victims of trafficking, they may question whether this assistance is reaching victims
equitably and effectively.

29 See 22 U.S.C. §7105.
30 Under the TVPA, to receive certain benefits and services, noncitizen victims of severe forms of trafficking who are
at least 18 years old must be certified by HHS. Noncitizen trafficking victims under age 18 do not have to be certified
to receive benefits and services, but HHS issues eligibility letters to such victims. For more information, see
https://www.acf.hhs.gov/otip/victim-assistance/eligibility-letters.
31 For more information about victim certification, see https://www.acf.hhs.gov/otip/victim-assistance/certification.
32 HHS, OTIP, Victim Assistance: Services Available to Survivors of Trafficking, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/otip/victim-
assistance/services-available-victims-trafficking. Certification allows trafficking victims access to the same benefits
and services that are available to refugees.
33 The account received $6.377 billion for FY2023, though Congress did not specify the portion that should be directed
to trafficking victim services.
34 DOJ, Attorney General’s Annual Report to Congress on U.S. Government Activities to Combat Trafficking in
Persons: FY2020, March 2022.
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Human Trafficking Data: A Complicating Factor
In evaluating services to human trafficking victims, or any subset of this population, a primary complicating factor is
a lack of knowledge about the true prevalence of human trafficking. Better data on human trafficking could help
researchers, advocates, policymakers, and others better evaluate how well services are reaching the target
population.
Although comprehensive data on human trafficking within the United States are not available, some estimates
exist.35

Available criminal justice data may help further understanding of the prevalence of human trafficking. The
FBI col ects data from local, state, and federal law enforcement agencies on certain criminal offenses known
to law enforcement through its Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) program. In 2013, the FBI began col ecting
certain human trafficking data as part of this program, and agency participation in col ecting these data has
increased over time. In addition, data on arrests and prosecutions of human trafficking cases can provide
another snapshot of human trafficking. Data from the FBI and ICE—the primary federal agencies investigating
human trafficking—can speak to the portion of human trafficking offenses that (1) fall under the jurisdiction of
federal law enforcement and (2) are officially investigated and potentially prosecuted at the federal level.

The National Human Trafficking Hotline data provide another view of human trafficking. This hotline
col ects data on reported, but unverified by law enforcement, instances of human trafficking across the United
States. These reports are made by individuals reporting victimization themselves, community members, and
nongovernmental organizations, among others.

The federal government and other entities conduct and fund several studies that capture data on human
trafficking, as either an express purpose or an included variable. These surveys and studies data can
provide insight into trafficking victim experiences or victim estimates in certain locales.

Human trafficking victim services data provide yet another angle from which to understand human
trafficking. For example, data from federal grantees providing victim services can offer insight into the subset
of trafficking victims receiving federally funded services. As another example, data on various forms of
immigration relief can provide snapshots into a subset of the noncitizen trafficking victim population.
These snapshots may not be mutually exclusive, though the true extent to which they overlap is unclear. For
instance, individuals who report potential victimization to the National Human Trafficking Hotline may or may not
also report this information directly to law enforcement, and their victimization may or may not also be captured
by victim service providers or in any number of research studies.
Comparing Services for Sex Trafficking and Labor Trafficking
Victims
The United States prosecutes more cases of sex trafficking than labor trafficking. In line with
these prosecutions, federally funded service providers assist more victims of sex trafficking than
labor trafficking. The State Department’s 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report indicated that of the
victims served by DOJ’s trafficking victim services grantees, 68% were sex trafficking victims,
23% were labor trafficking victims, 7% were victims of both sex and labor trafficking, and 9%
were victims whose type of victimization was unknown.36 Similarly, researchers from the Urban
Institute conducted an evaluation of 10 of DOJ’s Enhanced Collaborative Model task forces
(funded from 2015 to 2017) and found that 70% of individuals served by victim service providers
were victims of sex trafficking, and 30% were victims of labor trafficking. The researchers also
identified some potential barriers in serving labor trafficking victims. These include that law
enforcement may be more likely to focus resources and efforts on identifying and prosecuting sex
trafficking cases; law enforcement may not have the “proper infrastructure, expertise, or training

35 For more information on available sources of human trafficking data, see CRS Report R47211, Criminal Justice
Data: Human Trafficking.
36 State Department, 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report: United States, https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-
in-persons-report/united-states/.
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to fully investigate labor trafficking”; and labor trafficking can be harder to identify.37
Researchers also note that additional barriers to serving labor trafficking victims—who are more
often foreign nationals—include victims’ and service providers’ hesitancy to contact law
enforcement for fear that doing so will punish the victim for coming forward by subjecting them
to removal (deportation) if they do not have a lawful immigration status.38
The 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report noted that the United States had not made progress
toward comprehensively addressing labor trafficking. It also noted that services for “boys and
men, LGBTQI+ persons, survivors struggling with substance abuse issues, persons with limited
English proficiency, and children aging out of services, as well as those who did not wish to
participate in the criminal justice system, continued to be insufficient.”39 Among its priority
recommendations, the report urged an enhancement of efforts to identify labor trafficking victims
and provide them with services.40 DOJ, under its authority to develop, expand, or strengthen
services to trafficking victims, administers a grant program focused on minor victims of labor
trafficking.41 In its oversight of the federal grants serving trafficking victims, Congress may
examine the extent to which federal departments administering grants for victim services—
namely DOJ and HHS—may be evolving their efforts to reach the labor trafficking victim
population.
Evaluating Victim Assistance: Output vs. Outcome
When reporting metrics on trafficking victim assistance, analyses often include data such as the
number of victim service organizations receiving grants, the range of services offered by these
organizations, and the number of victims receiving support funded by these grants. These are
outputs, or quantifiable data that can help track the provision of victim services. However, there
are relatively few outcome measures or indices that can increase understanding of the
effectiveness and impact of victim services. Some researchers have been developing tools to
further this understanding, generally. For example, RTI International, an independent, nonprofit
research institute, worked with the Justice Research and Statistics Association and the Georgia
Statistical Analysis Center to develop a survey that victim service providers can use to collect
information from individuals served regarding the quality and impact of the services rendered.42
This survey, the Outcomes for Human Trafficking Survivors (OHTS) Instrument, measures
progress of clients receiving victim services in four areas: safety, well-being, connectedness, and
self-sufficiency.43 Additionally, the Urban Institute is currently partnering with the nonpartisan
and objective research organization NORC at the University of Chicago to evaluate the reliability
and validity of the OHTS Instrument and evaluate selected victim service providers with the

37 Urban Institute, Findings from an Evaluation of the Enhanced Collaborative Model Task Forces to Combat Human
Trafficking, January 2022.
38 Ibid. For more information on immigration relief for trafficking victims, see CRS Report R46584, Immigration Relief
for Victims of Trafficking; and CRS Report R47404, Immigration Relief for Noncitizen Crime Victims.
39 State Department, 2022 Trafficking in Persons Report: United States, https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-trafficking-
in-persons-report/united-states/.
40 Ibid.
41 For more information on this program, see OVC, OVC FY2022 Services for Minor Victims of Labor Trafficking,
https://ovc.ojp.gov/funding/opportunities/o-ovc-2022-171292.
42 RTI International, Shifting the Focus of the Victim Service Field from Measuring Outputs to Outcomes,
https://www.rti.org/impact/victim-service-providers-outcomes.
43 For more research on the OHTS Instrument, see https://www.rti.org/focus-area/human-trafficking. This instrument
was supported by a National Institute of Justice grant, 2016-VT-BX-0001.
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tool.44 Analysts and policymakers may examine how well this type of tool can evaluate outcomes
of human trafficking victim services, including evaluating those providers that facilitate a broad
range of services, such as mental health, job training, legal services, and housing assistance, and
those that support a specialized service type, such as housing assistance. Congress may debate
whether additional federal support for evaluating the OHTS Instrument and other tools helps not
only evaluate the effectiveness of federal grants for trafficking victim services but also helps
provide the most useful services for victims.

Author Information

Kristin Finklea

Specialist in Domestic Security

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

44 This research is supported by an NIJ grant, 15PNIJ-21-GG-03631-MUMU.
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