Reduction in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)

Reduction in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)

Reduction in Emissions from Deforestation and November 1, 2021
Forest Degradation (REDD+)
Pervaze A. Sheikh
Many stakeholders are concerned with the status of global forests and the effects of deforestation
Specialist in Natural
and forest degradation, for several reasons. Forests store the greatest amount of terrestrial carbon
Resources Policy
on Earth and play a significant part in the global carbon cycle. When forests are disturbed

through forest clearing, weather events (e.g., hurricanes, droughts), and wildfires, they release
Kezee Procita
carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere, which can exacerbate climate change. Land use
Senior Research Librarian
change and forestry, which includes deforestation and forest degradation, accounted for

approximately 13% of global carbon emissions from anthropogenic sources from 2007 to 2016.
Forests also support biodiversity; provide ecosystem services, such as retaining soil and
Anne A. Riddle
improving water quality; and sustain Indigenous cultures, among other things.
Analyst in Natural
Resources Policy
International policy initiatives to address global deforestation and forest degradation were

originally referred to as REDD (Reductions in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Katie Hoover
Degradation) and now are termed REDD+. REDD+ policies attempt to create financial value for
Specialist in Natural
carbon stored in forests by using market approaches to compensate landowners for not clearing
Resources Policy
or degrading their forests. REDD+ also promotes co-benefits of reducing deforestation, such as

biodiversity conservation, sustainable management of forests, and conservation of existing forest
carbon stocks. REDD+ is prominently included in international climate change discussions and

agreements, and many analysts consider it a low-cost policy mechanism to reduce carbon
emissions. REDD+ largely addresses tropical regions in developing countries, because these countries have the most forested
area, experience high rates of deforestation compared with other countries, and often rely on international financial assistance
to address deforestation.
The concept of REDD+ was introduced in its basic form at the 11th Conference of the Parties (COP) of the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change in 2005. It has evolved and grown into a broad policy initiative to ad dress
deforestation and forest degradation. In 2015, REDD+ was incorporated into Article 5 of the Paris Agreement (an
international treaty on climate change made at COP21). REDD+ initiatives typically incentivize and compensate developing
countries or subnational entities for reducing their emissions from deforestation and forest degradation through results-based
payments. REDD+ implementation in countries consists of several stages, including (1) achieving REDD+ readiness; (2)
formalizing an agreement for financing; (3) monitoring, reporting, and verifying results; and (4) receiving results-based
payments. REDD+ activities focus on conserving and sustainably managing forests to reduce carbon emissions.
Over 50 countries have national REDD+ initiatives, mostly developing countries in or adjacent to the tropics. REDD+ is also
being implemented at the subnational level through provincial and district governments and at the local level through private
landowners. As of 2020, there were over 400 ongoing REDD+ projects globally, with Brazil and Colombia accounting for the
largest amount of REDD+ project land area (over 25 million hectares). A number of bilateral and multilateral funding
mechanisms finance REDD+ projects, including the Green Climate Fund.
International forest conservation efforts, including REDD+, are of interest to Congress because reducing CO2 emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation is a strategy debated in Congress to mitigate the effects of anthropogenic carbon
emissions. Further, Congress has authorized and appropriated funding to conserve and restore forests through international
programs administered by several agencies, such as the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the U.S.
Department of State, the U.S. Department of the Treasury, and the U.S. Forest Service. REDD+ topics—including forest-
related emissions reductions pledges, financing opportunities and needs, and deforestation concerns—are expected to be
discussed at COP26 in November 2021.
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Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
The Forest Carbon Cycle.................................................................................................. 2
Forest Change and Deforestation.................................................................................. 4
Forest Coverage and Deforestation Trends..................................................................... 5
Drivers of Deforestation ........................................................................................ 7
What Is REDD+?............................................................................................................. 8
History of REDD+ ..................................................................................................... 8
Implementation of REDD+..................................................................................... 9
REDD+ Initiatives .............................................................................................. 12
Multilateral REDD+ Initiatives................................................................................... 13
Bilateral Assistance ............................................................................................ 14
Public Private Partnerships .................................................................................. 15
U.S. Initiatives to Address REDD+ ............................................................................. 15
REDD+ and COP26 ....................................................................................................... 17
Nationally Determined Contributions and Forests.................................................... 17
Funding to Implement REDD+ ............................................................................. 18
Deforestation and Commodities............................................................................ 18

Figures
Figure 1. Global Forest Area and Carbon Distribution........................................................... 3

Tables
Table 1. Selected Tree Cover Data for the Top 10 Forested Countries ...................................... 6
Table 2. Deforestation Data in Selected Regions .................................................................. 7
Table 3. Examples of REDD+ Activities at the Local and National Scales .............................. 11
Table 4. Ongoing REDD+ Projects in Selected Countries ..................................................... 12
Table 5. Selected Multilateral Initiatives That Support REDD+ ............................................. 13
Table 6. Selected U.S. Programs That Address International Deforestation ............................. 16

Contacts
Author Information ....................................................................................................... 19

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Introduction
Many stakeholders are concerned with the status of global forests and the effects of deforestation
and forest degradation within them, for several reasons. Forests store the greatest amount of
terrestrial carbon on Earth compared with other ecosystems,1 and deforestation and forest
degradation lead to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, which exacerbate climate change. Forests
also support biodiversity; provide ecosystem services, such as influencing weather, retaining soil,
and improving water quality; and sustain Indigenous cultures, among other things.2
Some international policy initiatives to address global deforestation and forest degradation are
broadly referred to as REDD+ (Reductions in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation). REDD+ policies attempt to create financial value for carbon stored in forests by
using market approaches to compensate landowners for not clearing or degrading their forests.
The plus in REDD+ signifies co-benefits of reducing deforestation, such as biodiversity
conservation, enhanced forest monitoring, sustainable management of forests, and conservation
of existing forest carbon stocks, among others.3 REDD+ is prominently included and promoted in
international climate change discussions and agreements, and many analysts consider it a low-
cost policy mechanism to reduce carbon emissions.4 Currently, REDD+ largely addresses tropical
forests in developing countries, because these countries have the most forested area, experience
high rates of deforestation compared with other countries, and often rely on international financial
assistance to address deforestation.
International forest conservation efforts, including REDD+, are of interest to Congress for several
reasons. Reducing carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from deforestation and forest degradation is
one of the strategies debated in Congress to mitigate the effects of anthropogenic carbon
emissions.5 At the international scale, developing countries often seek bilateral or multilateral
assistance—including from the United States—to meet forest conservation and other emissions
reduction targets. Congress has authorized and appropriated funding to conserve and restore
forests through international programs administered by several agencies.6 Further, some in
Congress have supported biodiversity conservation, which can also cover forest conservation.7

1 Yude Pan et al., “A Large and Persistent Carbon Sink in the World’s Forests,” Science, vol. 333, no. 6045 (August 19,
2011), pp. 989-993, at https://science.sciencemag.org/content/333/6045/988. Hereinafter, Pan et al., “ A Large and
Persistent Carbon Sink in the World’s Forests.”
2 T ropical forests, for example, are considered among the Earth’s most biologically diverse ecosystems; some scientists
estimate that tropical rainforests hold nearly 50% of the Earth’s biological diversity
3 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report, Contributions of
Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland, 2014, p. 126.
4 International Institute for Environment and Development, “ REDD: Protecting Forests, Climate, and Livelihoods,”
October 2021, at https://www.iied.org/redd-protecting-climate-forests-livelihoods.
5 For example, see U.S. Congress, House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Subcommittee on Western Hemisphere,
Civilian Security and T rade, Preserving the Am azon: A Shared Moral Im perative, hearings, 116th Cong., 1st sess.,
September 10, 2019, H.Hrg.116-60.
6 For example, the T ropical Forest Conservation Act of 1998 (22 U.S.C. §§2431 et seq.) authorize d the United States to
conduct debt -for-nature swaps with developing countries to conserve their tropical forests. In addition, Congress funds
the Natural Climate Solutions program, administered by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). T his
program aims to “ protect, manage, and restore forests and other lands to combat climate change while improving
livelihoods and resilience.” For more information, see CRS Report R46493, U.S. Funding for International
Conservation and Biodiversity, by Pervaze A. Sheikh et al.; and CRS Report RL31286, Debt-for-Nature Initiatives and
the Tropical Forest Conservation Act (TFCA): Status and Im plem entation , by Pervaze A. Sheikh.
7 See “U.S. Initiatives to Address REDD+” section.
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Members and congressional staff also participate in international conferences featuring
discussions on issues regarding forests, climate change, and biodiversity, including the 26th
Conference of Parties (COP26) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) in November 2021 in Glasgow, United Kingdom.
To facilitate understanding of the principles underlying REDD+, this report begins with an
overview of the forest carbon cycle and the contribution of deforestation to carbon emissions and
an overview of deforestation (how it is measured, the factors that drive deforestation, and global
and country-specific trends). The report then provides an overview of REDD+, including its
history and implementation, and lists selected international and domestic initiatives that address
REDD+. The report also discusses the potential role of REDD+ in discussions and negotiations in
COP26.
The Forest Carbon Cycle8
Anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) into the atmosphere are the dominant
contributor to the observed warming trend in global temperatures.9 Carbon emissions into the
atmosphere are derived, in part, from forests undergoing anthropogenic and natural changes.
Forest ecosystems uptake, store, cycle, and release carbon. The forest carbon cycle starts with the
accumulation of atmospheric carbon in living plants—primarily trees—as they grow. As trees or
parts of trees die, the carbon cycles into dead wood, litter, and soils. Carbon may remain in these
pools for varying amounts of time—from months to mil ennia—before either returning directly to
the atmosphere through natural processes (e.g., decomposition, combustion, respiration) or
leaving the forest ecosystem through other means (e.g., timber harvests).10 Over time, forest
ecosystems accumulate significant amounts of carbon and store a substantial amount of global
terrestrial carbon (see Figure 1).

8 For a more comprehensive discussion of the forest carbon cycle, see CRS Report R46312, Forest Carbon Primer, by
Katie Hoover and Anne A. Riddle.
9 Other greenhouse gases include methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and several fluorinated gases. D. J. Wuebbles et
al., “ Executive Summary,” in Clim ate Science Special Report: Fourth National Clim ate Assessm ent (NCA), Volum e
II, U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2018.
10 Klaus Lorenz and Rattan Lal, Carbon Sequestration in Forest Ecosystems (New York: Springer, 2010).
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Figure 1. Global Forest Area and Carbon Distribution
(by major forest biome)

Source: Data from Table S3 in the online supporting material for Yude Pan et al., “A Large and Persistent
Carbon Sink in the World’s Forests,” Science, vol. 333, no. 6045 (August 19, 2011), pp. 989-993, at
https://science.sciencemag.org/content/333/6045/988.
Notes: Figures may not add due to rounding. Forest biomes also are defined by precipitation and vegetation
type. “Living” includes carbon in living biomass; “dead” includes carbon in deadwood, litter, and soil. BMT C =
bil ion metric tons of carbon.
The amount of carbon stored in a forest relative to the amount of carbon the forest releases into
the atmosphere is constantly changing with tree growth, death, and decomposition. If the total
amount of carbon released into the atmosphere by a given forest over a given period is greater
than the amount of carbon sequestered in that forest, the forest is a net source of carbon
emissions. If the forest sequesters more carbon than it releases into the atmosphere over a given
period, the forest is a net sink of carbon. These forest carbon dynamics are driven in large part by
disturbances (i.e., events that cause tree mortality).11 Disturbances, including timber harvesting,
forest clearing, weather events (e.g., hurricanes, droughts), insect and disease infestations, and
wildfires, can change forests. Definitions of some terms related to forests in the context of
REDD+ include the following:
 A forest is land spanning more than 0.5 hectares (ha) with trees higher than 5
meters and a canopy cover of more than 10% or with trees able to reach these
thresholds. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or
urban land use.12
 Deforestation occurs when a disturbance causes a forest to convert to permanent
or long-term non-forest cover, such as agricultural land, grassland, or
development (e.g., urbanization). Deforestation occurs through deliberate human

11 Disturbance is defined as “any relatively discrete event in time that disrupts ecosystems, community, or population
structure and changes resources, substrate availability, or the physical environment.” Steward T . A. Pickett and P. S.
White, The Ecology of Natural Disturbance and Patch Dynam ics (Orlando: Academic Press, 1985). As a relatively
prolonged event, drought may not fit the specific ecological definition of a disturbance but is included as one in this
report.
12 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020: Terms
and Definitions, 2018, at https://www.fao.org/3/I8661EN/i8661en.pdf. T his definition of forest is widely used
internationally, including by the U.S. federal government for forest inventory and analysis purposes. However, other
sources may use other definitions or may not cite a formal definition. A hectare is about 2.47 acres.
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intervention (e.g., clearing forests to plant grasslands) and, in some cases,
without human intervention (e.g., natural disasters, such as fires or hurricanes).
The term deforestation is not typical y used to refer to areas where trees have
been harvested and are expected to be replanted or to regenerate natural y.13
 Forest degradation occurs when disturbances cause a long-term decline in forest
condition—such as loss of canopy cover—without deforestation.14
 Tree cover loss refers to decreases in forest canopy cover from anthropogenic or
natural causes. In contrast to deforestation, tree cover loss may or may not persist
over the long term. For example, a timber harvest where trees were replanted on
the same land would result in tree cover loss but not deforestation. 15
Forest Change and Deforestation
Scientists aim to quantify global forest change to inform efforts to monitor deforestation, forest
degradation, and changes in carbon fluxes. Comprehensive, global data on forest change, in
particular deforestation, is lacking. This is due in part to chal enges related to the global scope,
technological capabilities, and inconsistent definitions of relevant concepts, such as what
constitutes deforestation. Further, even though satel ite technology is capable of detecting many
aspects of forest cover, satel ites cannot differentiate between permanent and temporary tree
cover loss. This must be done by on-the-ground verification.
Deforestation, in part, led to a net decline of global forest area of approximately 178 mil ion ha
from 1990 to 2020.16 This figure contains significant regional variation (e.g., gains of forest area
in some regions). Forest degradation is difficult to assess and is general y not reported in global
statistics.17 The rate of deforestation varies over this 30-year span and has declined in recent
years. Global deforestation between 2015 and 2020 was estimated at 10 mil ion ha per year, less
than the 16 mil ion ha per year calculated in the 1990s.18 Forests that are not cleared also face
issues that affect their health. For example, scientists estimate that more than 100 mil ion ha of
forests global y are adversely affected by forest fires, pests, diseases, invasive species, drought,
and weather events.19
Researchers, stakeholders, and governments measure carbon flux using varied scopes,
methodologies, and definitions, leading to varying results. Some estimates of carbon flux
combine forestry with other land use activities, such as agriculture, which may mask the specific

13 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020: Terms and
Definitions, 2020, at https://www.fao.org/3/I8661EN/i8661en.pdf.
14 Ian T hompson et al., “An Operational Framework for Defining and Monitoring Forest Degradation,” Ecology and
Society, vol. 18, no. 2 (2013), p. 20.
15 World Resources Institute (WRI) Global Forest Watch, “Country Profiles,” accessed September 21, 2021, at
https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/global. For additional discussion of the difference between tree cover
loss and deforestation, see Nancy Harris et al., “When a T ree Falls, Is It Deforestation?” WRI Global Forest Watch
blog, September 13, 2018, at https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/data-and-research/when-a-tree-falls-is-it-
deforestation/.
16 Maria Janowiak et al., Considering Forest and Grassland Carbon in Land Management, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, U.S. Forest Service, GT R-WO-95, June 2017; and Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO), Global Forest Resources Assessm ent 2020 , 2020, p.10, at http://www.fao.org/3/ca8642en/
CA8642EN.pdf. (Hereinafter, FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessm ent 2020 .)
17 FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, p. 96.
18 FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, p. 13.
19 FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, p. xvi.
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contributions of the forestry sector.20 Some studies might report only net fluxes and not gross
fluxes, and others might only include CO2 emissions versus al GHGs and make assumptions to
differentiate anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic fluxes.21
According to estimates by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) from 2007 to
2016, net global anthropogenic emissions from agriculture, forestry, and land use (often referred
to as AFOLU) for this period were 5.2 (+/- 2.6) gigaton (Gt) of carbon dioxide equivalent per
year (CO2e/yr) or approximately 13% of net global CO2 emissions.22 This was driven by land
cover change, including deforestation and afforestation/reforestation, wood harvesting, and other
land uses (e.g., peatland burning). Net emissions noted above include estimated gross emissions
of about 20 GtCO2e/yr and gross removals of about -14 GtCO2e/yr, largely from forest growth.23
IPCC further noted in its report that the “largest potential for reducing AFOLU emissions are
through reduced deforestation and forest degradation (0.4-5.8 GtCO2-eq/yr).24”
Forest Coverage and Deforestation Trends
Forests cover approximately 31% of the global land area, with approximately half of al forests
located in five countries: Brazil, Canada, China, Russian Federation, and the United States.25 (See
Table 1.) Scientists measure changes in forest coverage by estimating tree cover loss, which
includes deforestation and other activities that might not be permanent (e.g., selective logging in
plantations). There are many chal enges for measuring forest change over time, and estimates of
deforestation rates for certain countries may vary among reports.26 This section of the report relies
on data provided by the Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) for percent global
forest coverage and the World Resources Institute’s Global Forest Watch Program (GFWP) for
changes in tree cover loss and estimated deforestation. GFWP estimated deforestation by
reviewing satel ite data of tree cover loss and categorizing the loss based on drivers of
deforestation (e.g., clearings, conversion to agricultural fields and pasture, urban expansion, and
others).27 Table 1 shows these estimates including total tree cover loss, by country, between 2001
and 2020. (Note that these figures do not include tree cover gain.)
Countries with higher levels of potential y permanent forest loss (e.g., Brazil, the Democratic
Republic of the Congo [DRC], and Indonesia) are experiencing commodity-driven deforestation,

20 Nancy Harris et al., “Global Maps of the T wenty-First Century Forest Carbon Fluxes,” Nature Climate Change, vol.
11, (2021), pp. 234-240.
21 Nancy Harris et al., “Global Maps of the T wenty-First Century Forest Carbon Fluxes.”
22 IPCC, Chapter 2, “Land-Climate Interactions,” and T able 2.2, “Net Anthropogenic Emissions Due to Agriculture,
Forestry, and Other Land Use (AFOLU) and non -AFOLU (Average for 2007-2018), in Clim ate Change and Land: An
IPCC Special Report on Clim ate Change, Desertification, Land Degradation, Sustainable Land Management, Food
Security, and Greenhouse Gas Fluxes in Terrestrial Ecosystem s, 2019, p. 123. Hereafter, IPCC, Chapter 2, “ Land-
Climate Interactions.” Carbon dioxide equivalent is a measure used to compare the emissions from various greenhouse
gases on the basis of their global-warming potential by converting amounts of other gases to the equivalent amount of
carbon dioxide with the same global warming potential.
23 IPCC, Chapter 2, “Land-Climate Interactions.”
24 IPCC, Chapter 2, “Land-Climate Interactions.”
25 FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020; World Resources Institute (WRI) Global Forest Watch, Country
Profiles, accessed September 21, 2021, at https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/global.
26 Scientists note that rates of forest loss can be measured by satellites, but the causes and permanence of forest loss that
help define deforest ation must be assessed by on-the-ground information. See H. Manjari Jayathilake et al., “ Drivers of
Deforestation and Degradation for 28 T ropical Conservation Landscapes,” Ambio, vol. 50 (2021), pp. 215-228.
27 WRI, “Global Forest Review – Data and Methods,” at https://research.wri.org/gfr/data-methods#forestchange1.
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shifting agriculture, and urbanization, according to GFWP.28 In contrast, countries with lower
levels of potential y permanent forest loss (e.g., Russia, Canada, and Australia) are losing forest
coverage as a result of forestry activities or wildfires—both drivers with the potential for forest
regeneration.29 In the United States, tree cover loss is largely due to forestry activities (e.g.,
plantation forestry) and wildfire—representing approximately 69% and 23% of the total
nationwide tree cover loss, respectively.30
Table 1. Selected Tree Cover Data for the Top 10 Forested Countries
(not including tree cover gain)a
Country
Percent
Global
Forest Area
Tree Cover
Estimated
Forest
in 2020
Loss 2001-
Percent of Tree Drivers of Tree
Cover Loss Likely Cover Loss
Coverage in
(Mha)
2020 (Mha)b
to Be Permanentc
2020
Russia
20%
815
69.5
0% Wildfire, forestry
Brazil
Commodity-
driven
12%
497
59.8
71% deforestation,
shifting agriculture
Canada
9%
347
44.1
0% Forestry, wildfire
United
Forestry,
States
8%
310
42.2
8% wildfires,
urbanization
China
5%
220
10.3
2% Forestry
Australia
3%
134
8.5
1% Wildfire, forestry
Democratic
Republic of
the Congo
3%
126
15.9
34% Shifting agriculture
(DRC)
Indonesia
Commodity-
2%
92
27.7
94% driven
deforestation
Peru
Shifting
agriculture,
2%
72
3.4
not available commodity-driven
deforestation
India
2%
72
1.93
not available Forestry
Sources: FAO, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020. Global Forest Watch, Country Profiles, accessed
September 21, 2021, at https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/global; World Resources Institute (WRI),
“Global Forest Review – Top 10 Lists,” at https://research.wri.org/gfr/top-ten-lists; WRI, “Global Forest Review
– Data and Methods,” at https://research.wri.org/gfr/data-methods#forestchange1.

28 WRI, “Global Forest Review – T op 10 Lists,” at https://research.wri.org/gfr/top-ten-lists.
29 WRI, “Global Forest Review – T op 10 Lists,” at https://research.wri.org/gfr/top-ten-lists.
30 See Global Forest Watch dashboard for the United States at https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/country/
USA. Plantation forestry is an intensively managed planted forest that at maturity is composed of one or two species,
has one age class, and has regular tree spacing. Once trees are harvested, the soil is reformed, and new trees are planted.
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Notes: Global Forest Watch partners with the Global Land Analysis and Discovery (GLAD) laboratory at the
University of Maryland to provide annual, updated global-scale forest loss data derived from satel ite imagery.
The data are not self-reported by countries.
a. According to Global Forest Watch, because of variation in methodology and date of content, tree cover
loss and gain data cannot be compared accurately, and variables such as net tree cover gain or loss cannot
be calculated.
b. Tree cover loss data are from regions that contains over 30% tree coverage.
c. Global Forest Watch estimates percent of permanent tree cover loss as loss of tree cover associated with
commodity-driven deforestation, shifting agriculture, forestry activities, wildfire, and urbanization.
Drivers of Deforestation
Efforts to reduce deforestation focus, in part, on reducing drivers of deforestation. Reducing
drivers of deforestation, in turn, can increase the effectiveness and permanence of REDD+
activities. Scientists and policymakers have identified several drivers of deforestation that vary by
region, forest type, local economies, and global trade, among other factors. The largest driver of
global deforestation is agricultural expansion, which includes commercial agriculture, shifting
smal -scale agriculture, and ranching.31 Other drivers include legal and il egal logging; extractive
industries (e.g., mining); wildfire; and urbanization, including the expansion of roads and
infrastructure such as hydroelectric dams.32 Associating the appropriate drivers of deforestation
with forested regions is a key step in implementing REDD+, according to scientists. Complex
indirect and direct deforestation drivers affect large forested regions in the tropics, such as the
Amazon Rainforest, the Congo Basin, and forests in Indonesia. These forested areas are often the
focus of REDD+ initiatives and contain hotspots of deforestation.33 Table 2 provides a summary
of these forest characteristics and their deforestation drivers.
Table 2. Deforestation Data in Selected Regions
Region
Area Deforested (year)
Primary Drivers of Deforestation
Legal Brazilian Amazona
1,090,000 ha (2020)
Cattle ranching, smal -scale agriculture, conversion
of pastureland to soybean production, and fires in
drought-prone forests
Congo Basinb
775,000 hac (2019)
Smal -scale agriculture, commercial agricultural
expansion, logging, and fuelwood and charcoal
extraction
Indonesia
115,500 ha (2020)
Smal -scale farming, expansion of crops such as
pulpwood and palm oil plantations, logging, and fires
Sources: Data from the Brazilian Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, accessed October 6, 2021 , at
http://terrabrasilis.dpi.inpe.br/en/home-page/; Johannes Reiche et al., “Forest Disturbance Alerts for the Congo
Basin Using Sentinel-1,” Environmental Research Letters, vol. 16, no. 2 (2021) (hereinafter, Reiche et al., “Forest
Disturbance Alerts”); Francis Seymour and Nancy Harris, “Reducing Tropical Deforestation,” Science, vol. 365,
no. 6455 (2019), pp. 756-757; World Wildlife Fund, “Chapter 3: Drivers of Deforestation,” in Deforestation

31 Francis Seymour and Nancy Harris, “Reducing T ropical Deforestation,” Science, vol. 365, no. 6455 (2019), pp. 756-
757.
32 World Wildlife Fund, “Chapter 3: Drivers of Deforestation,” in Deforestation Fronts: Drivers and Responses in a
Changing World, January 13, 2021, at https://www.worldwildlife.org/publications/deforestation-fronts-drivers-and-
responses-in-a-changing-world-full-report ; WRI Global Forest Watch, “ Global Summary,” accessed October 7, 2021,
at https://www.globalforestwatch.org/dashboards/global.
33 Susan Minnemeyere et al., New Deforestation Hot Spots in the World’s Largest Tropical Forests, WRI, February 7,
2017, at https://www.wri.org/insights/new-deforestation-hot-spots-worlds-largest-tropical-forests.
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Fronts: Drivers and Responses in a Changing World, January 13, 2021, at https://www.worldwildlife.org/publications/
deforestation-fronts-drivers-and-responses-in-a-changing-world-ful -report.
Notes: Details about how deforestation rates are calculated are available from each of the sources listed above.
ha = hectares.
a. The Legal Brazilian Amazon is a defined area under Brazilian law comprising nine states that contain the
Amazon forest.
b. The Congo Basin includes area in Cameroon, the Central African Republic, the Republic of Congo, the
Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon.
c. This value of 775,000 ha represents the area of forest disturbance, which the authors define as, “the
complete or partial removal of tree cover within a 10m2 pixel.” See Reiche et al., “Forest Disturbance
Alerts.”
What Is REDD+?
History of REDD+
REDD evolved over a series of international negotiations, conferences, agreements, and treaties.
The concept of REDD was introduced by the Coalition of Rainforest Nations in a submission to
the 11th Conference of the Parties (COP11) in 2005.34 This initial concept document outlined an
approach for the UNFCCC to support the use of international financing from industrialized
countries to reduce carbon emissions from tropical deforestation.35 In 2007, the Bali Decision on
Deforestation acknowledged that deforestation and forest degradation contribute to GHG
emissions and stated an “urgent need” to further reduce GHG emissions from deforestation.36 The
decision promoted various efforts, including demonstration projects, to reduce GHG emissions
from deforestation and forest degradation, and it encouraged financial and technical support for
those efforts from the parties to the convention and others.37
REDD became REDD+ in 2008, when the UNFCCC expanded the activities associated with
REDD to include participation of Indigenous people; inclusion of co-benefits of reducing
deforestation, such as biodiversity conservation; enhanced forest monitoring; and the
conservation of existing forest carbon stocks.38 The Cancun Agreements, adopted in 2010, further
evolved REDD+ to broadly address drivers of deforestation; land tenure; forest governance;
gender issues; and the participation of relevant stakeholders, including Indigenous peoples and
local communities (these are known as the Cancun Safeguards).39 The Cancun Agreements also
provided a list of activities to be undertaken for REDD+ that included the following:

34 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in
Developing Countries: Approaches to Stim ulate Action , Conference of the Parties, 11th Session, Submission from
Parties, November 11, 2005.
35 Since 1992, the UNFCCC has been the primary multilateral vehicle for international cooperation to address climate
change. UNFCCC, agreed on May 9, 1992, entered into force March 21, 1994, 1771 U.N.T.S. 107; United Nations,
T reaty Series, vol. 1771, p. 107; and U.S. depositary notifications C.N.148.1993.
36 UNFCCC, Decision 2/CP.13—“Reducing Emissions from Deforestation in Developing Countries: Approaches to
Stimulate Action,” reported in UNFCCC, Report of the Conference of the Parties on Its Thirteenth Session Held in Bali
from 3rd to 15th Decem ber 2007, March 14, 2008, p. 8.
37 Ibid.
38 UNFCCC, Decision 4/CP.15, reported in Report of the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice on
Its Twenty-Ninth Session, Held in Poznan from 1 to 10 Decem ber 2008 , Subsidiary Body for Scientific and
T echnological Advice, February 17, 2009, p. 8.
39 T he Cancun Agreements have seven safeguards for REDD+, including that REDD+ actions (1) are consistent with
national forest programs and international conventions and agreements; (2) are governed by transparent and effective
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 Reducing emissions from deforestation
 Reducing emissions from forest degradation
 Conservation of forest carbon stocks
 Enhancement of forest carbon stocks
 Sustainable management of forests40
In addition, the Cancun Agreements requested that parties develop a national strategy to
implement the activities discussed above, calculate a national forest emission reference level,
develop a forest monitoring system, and implement a system to address safeguards for REDD+.
In 2013, the Warsaw Framework for REDD+ was created from earlier decisions on REDD+
adopted by COP. The Warsaw Framework is considered the “REDD+ implementation guide.”41 In
2015, REDD+ was incorporated into Article 5 of the Paris Agreement (PA);42 a framework for a
global carbon market to financial y support REDD+ was included under Article 6 of the PA in the
same year.43
Implementation of REDD+
REDD+ aims to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation by providing funding
and incentives to landowners (public or private) for not deforesting their land. Over 50 countries
have national REDD+ initiatives, mostly developing countries in or adjacent to the tropics. In
addition, provincial and district governments implement REDD+ at the subnational level, and
private landowners implement it at the local level.44 REDD+ initiatives typical y incentivize and
compensate developing countries or subnational entities for reducing their emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation through results-based payments.45 REDD+ is implemented in
countries in several stages, including (1) achieving REDD+ readiness; (2) formalizing an
agreement for financing; (3) monitoring, reporting, and verifying results; and (4) receiving
results-based payments.

structures; (3) respect the knowledge and rights of Indigenous peoples and local communities and take into account
relevant international obligations; (4) allow for the full participation of relevant stakeholders; (5) are consistent with the
conservation of natural forests, biodiversit y, and ecosystem services; (6) address the risk of reversals of REDD+; and
(7) reduce displacement of emissions.
40 UNFCCC, Decision 1/CP.6, UNFCCC Secretariat, Key Decisions Relevant for Reducing Emissions from
Deforestation and Forest Degradation in Developing Countries (REDD+), February 2016. Hereinafter, Decision
1/CP.6.
41 UNFCCC, Decision 9-15/CP.19, “ Decisions Adopted by the Conference of the Parties,” reported in UNFCCC,
Report of the Conference of the Parties on its Nineteenth Session, Held in Warsaw from 11 to 23 Novem ber 2013,
January 31, 2014, pp. 24-43.
42 Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC, “Adoption of the Paris Agreement,” in UNFCCC, “ Addendum, Part T wo:
Action T aken by the Conference of the Parties at Its T wenty -First Session,” in Report of the Conference of the Parties
on Its Twenty-First Session, Held in Paris from 30 Novem ber to 13 Decem ber 2015 , FCCC /CP/2015/10/Add.1.
Decision 1/CP.21. 2016. Hereinafter, the Paris Agreement. Under Article 5, parties are encouraged to implement
activit ies to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation based on already agreed upon guidance and
decisions. T he agreement also discusses a REDD+ approach and results-based payments for implementing activities.
43 Article 6 of the Paris Agreement.
44 Amy E. Duchelle et al., Forest Based Climate Mitigation: Lessons from REDD+ Implementation , WRI, Issue Brief,
October 2019, pp. 1-31. Hereinafter, Amy E. Duchelle et al., Forest Based Clim ate Mitigation.
45 Results-based payments are funding provided upon completion of actions or pre-agreed terms by one or more
beneficiaries. For REDD+, results typically are associated with reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from forests.
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To achieve REDD+ readiness, nations must be prepared to receive results-based payments for
conserving forests.46 This is accomplished by initial y establishing a forest reference emission
level or forest reference level that serves as a baseline for measuring and assessing the
performance of REDD+ activities. The reference level also sets the basis for measuring the
effectiveness of REDD+.47 Reference levels are reported as emitted tons of CO2e/yr from
deforestation and forest degradation for a reference period.48 REDD+ readiness also may involve
implementing national policies, measures, and strategies, as wel as conducting demonstration
projects.
After achieving REDD+ readiness, the country, subnational entity, or locality may enter a legal y
binding commitment (agreement) with a funder to finance REDD+ activities. An agreement
typical y contains provisions and terms for implementing REDD+ activities and for providing
payments upon the completion of these activities. An agreement also may contain conditions for
adhering to REDD+ safeguards, such as taking actions that are consistent with national forest
plans and international agreements, among other conditions.49
REDD+ activities typical y are implemented after agreements are made, although in some cases
agreements may cover existing activities. (See Table 3 for examples of projects.) After
implementation, results are monitored, reported, and verified (MRV) before payments are given.
MRV programs can have several components. Domestic agencies may monitor deforestation,
reforestation, and forest degradation with satel ite imagery and analyze the results. For example,
the NASA Carbon Monitoring System aims to provide MRV data to address forest changes in the
United States.50 Forest data also help scientists estimate the effects of REDD+ activities through
indicators such as how many tons of CO2e are reduced annual y. In addition, MRV protocols can
include measuring the effectiveness of REDD+ activities and verifying the distribution of
payments and nonmonetary benefits to stakeholders.51 As of September 2020, 13 countries had
reported results from national-level REDD+ activities, most of which aim to reduce emissions
from deforestation.52 These country-level programs reported to the UNFCCC emissions
reductions from REDD+ totaling 9.03 bil ion tons of CO2e; approximately 90% of this amount
was reported from Brazil.53
Results-based payments are made to countries (or landowners depending on the scale) who have
successfully implemented REDD+ programs. The payments aim to overcome the opportunity
costs of other land uses that drive deforestation, such as ranching and crop production. Payments

46 Under the Warsaw Framework, readiness involves four factors: (1) develop a national REDD+ strategy; (2) establish
a national reference emission level or forest emission level; (3) create a national forest monitoring system; and (4)
provide a system to assess and report how REDD+ safeguards are being addressed.
47 As of September 2020, 50 countries had submitted reference levels to the UNFCCC, representing areas that
experienced approximately 75% of global deforestation. FAO, From Reference Levels to Results Reporting: REDD+
Under the United Nations Fram ework Convention on Clim ate Change, Forestry Working Paper no. 19, 2020.
Hereinafter, FAO, From Reference Levels to Results Reporting.
48 UNFCC, “REDD+ Platform: Forest Reference Emission Levels,” fact sheet, at https://redd.unfccc.int/fact-sheets/
forest -reference-emission-levels.html.
49 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), REDD Plus and Benefit Sharing, December 2009, at
https://www.iucn.org/downloads/benefit_sharing_english.pdf. Hereinafter, IUCN, REDD plus and Benefit Sharing.
50 T his system is in its prototype phase. For more information, see National Aeronautics and Space Administration
(NASA), “NASA Carbon Monitoring System,” at https://carbon.nasa.gov/.
51 EuroREDD Facility, “Measuring, Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification,” at https://www.euredd.efi.int/measuring.
52 FAO, From Reference Levels to Results Reporting.
53 FAO, From Reference Levels to Results Reporting.
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might come from a variety of public, private, bilateral, and multilateral sources. Funds from
national-level REDD+ programs general y are to be reinvested for activities in line with the
country’s nationally determined contributions (NDCs) as established under Article 4 of the Paris
Agreement, national REDD+ strategies, or low-carbon development activities.54
Table 3. Examples of REDD+ Activities at the Local and National Scales
Scale
Examples
Local
Preservation of forests
(implemented by
Sustainable management of forests (e.g., excluding cattle, removing invasive species)
landowners and
Forest restoration/afforestation
communities)
Monitoring of local forests
Reduction of damage to forests from extractive activities
National and
Laws and regulations that lead to the conservation and protection of forests
subnational
Monitoring and enforcement of conservation-related laws and regulations
National strategy for implementing REDD+/national program for payments for REDD+
Regulation of carbon markets, if applicable
Establishment and enforcement of land tenure
Monitoring and measuring of change in forest cover
Sources: CRS and Arturo Balderas Torres and Margaret Skutsch, “Splitting the Difference: A Proposal for
Benefit Sharing in Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+),” Forests, vol. 3, no. 1
(December 2012), pp. 137-154.
Note: This list is not comprehensive. REDD+ = Reductions in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation. Afforestation is the act or process of establishing a forest on land not previously forested.
There are a variety of financing approaches used to implement REDD+ activities: direct, nested,
or project-based.
 Direct Approach: Financing may go directly to a jurisdiction (country or state)
for implementing REDD+; in this case, the government would receive al of the
benefits from REDD+ activities and distribute them to stakeholders via a benefit-
sharing mechanism. As noted above, funds from national-level REDD+ programs
general y are to be reinvested for activities in line with the country’s NDCs,
national REDD+ strategies, or low-carbon development activities.55
 Nested Approach: Under a nested REDD+ approach, participation and terms (e.g.,
rules and parameters for projects) are set at the jurisdictional level and benefits
are provided to individual projects.56 For example, a country may establish an
overarching program for REDD+ to provide guidelines and parameters for
individual projects to be funded directly.
 Project-Based Approach: This approach involves providing benefits directly to
projects that are not subject to a jurisdictional framework. Nonprofit or for-profit
developers often use the project-based REDD+ approach and sel credits directly
to buyers.57 Voluntary transactions of this type stimulate investments from those

54 FAO, From Reference Levels to Results Reporting, p. 40.
55 FAO, From Reference Levels to Results Reporting, p. 40.
56 Amy E. Duchelle et al., Forest Based Climate Mitigation. Although Article 6 of the Paris Agreement formalized a
framework for a global carbon market, this framework has not been widely used to finance REDD +.
57 Beatrice Granziera, Kelley Hamrick, and Maggie Comstock, Eligibility Requirements for REDD Standards and
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in the private sector that are seeking carbon credits to offset their emissions. The
voluntary market for REDD+ has increased significantly in recent years, going
from 104.3 mil ion tons (mt) CO2e in 2019 to 188.2 mtCO2e in 2020 to 239.3
mtCO2e through August 2021. By the end of 2021, the market is expected to be
double the 2020 value.58
REDD+ Initiatives
Reporting REDD+ initiatives global y is chal enging, due to projects occurring at various
jurisdictional levels and a lack of homogenized data. There is no comprehensive source of
REDD+ project data at al jurisdictional and private levels. However, the International Database
on REDD+ Projects and Programs (ID-RECCO), created in 2015, aims to capture descriptions and
data on as many REDD+ projects and data as possible.59 The database is considered indicative and
not comprehensive since it reflects reported projects that are described in English. Other
databases, such as the UNFCCC REDD+ Web Platform, make available information about the
results of completed REDD+ projects at the national level, including tons of carbon dioxide
equivalent associated with each project, information on entities providing funding, and associated
documentation.60 Others have compiled similar data.61
According to ID-RECCO, as of 2020, there were a total of 624 REDD+ projects, including 416
ongoing projects, 206 inactive projects, and 2 planned projects. Table 4 lists the 10 countries with
the greatest area devoted to REDD+, ranked by number of hectares associated with REDD+
projects. Of the 416 ongoing REDD+ projects catalogued by the database, 108 are occurring in
these countries (approximately 25%).62
Table 4. Ongoing REDD+ Projects in Selected Countries
(as of 2020)
Country
Number of Projects
Cumulative Area of Projects (ha)
Brazil
27
14,190,032
Colombia
28
10,897,008
Indonesia
18
5,936,444
Myanmar
1
3,888,200
Kenya
8
2,646,810
Peru
13
2,073,021

Financing, Nature Conservancy and Conservation International, May 21, 2021.
58 Stephen Donofrio et al., Markets in Motion: State of the Voluntary Carbon Markets 2021 , Ecosystem Marketplace:
Forest T rends Initiative, September 21, 2021.
59 Gabriela Simonet and Coline Seyller, ID-RECCO, A New Collaborative Work Tool to Improve Knowledge on
REDD+ Projects: Sources, Methodology, and Data , Chaire Economie du Climat, Working Paper no. 2015 -08,
September 2015, at http://www.chaireeconomieduclimat.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/15-09-Cahier-R-2015-08-
Simonet -Seyller.pdf.
60 T he Lima REDD+ Information Hub was created in response to Decision 9/CP.19 at COP19, directing the
establishment of “an information hub on the web platform on the UNFCCC website as a means to publish information
on the results of activities.” See UNFCCC, “Lima REDD+ Information Hub,” at https://redd.unfccc.int/info-hub.html.
61 See, for example, the Center for International Forestry Research, “Global Database of REDD+ and Other Forest
Carbon Projects,” 2017, at https://www2.cifor.org/gcs/redd-map/.
62 Stibniati S. Atmadja, Summary Analysis of REDD+ Projects, 2018-2020, v. 4.1, 2021, available from the
International Database on REDD+ Projects and Programs at https://www.reddprojectsdatabase.org/.
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Country
Number of Projects
Cumulative Area of Projects (ha)
Zambia
4
1,272,803
Cameroon
1
1,247,391
Madagascar
4
1,017,439
Cambodia
4
894,115
Total
108
44,063,263
Source: Stibniati S. Atmadja, Summary Analysis of REDD+ Projects, 2018-2020, v. 4.1, 2021, available from the
International Database on REDD+ Projects and Programs at https://www.reddprojectsdatabase.org/.
Note: The 10 countries with the greatest area devoted to REDD+ projects are in this table. ha = hectares;
REDD+ = Reductions in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation.
Multilateral REDD+ Initiatives
International funding to address deforestation through REDD+ programming comes from
initiatives such as the United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and
Forest Degradation (UN-REDD), the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility, and the World Bank’s
Forest Investment Program. International funding is also provided through bilateral foreign
assistance, international environmental funds, and public-private partnerships. Table 5 discusses
selected multilateral efforts. Most multilateral efforts to implement REDD+ focus on tropical and
subtropical developing countries. Some of these efforts focus on landuse policies broadly, with an
emphasis on REDD+; such efforts include programs that address governance, sustainability, and
agriculture in conjunction with REDD+. Other programs focus on REDD+ readiness.63
Table 5. Selected Multilateral Initiatives That Support REDD+
Initiative
Description
United Nations Col aborative
UN-REDD helps developing countries build the capacity to implement a national-
Programme on Reducing
level REDD+ program (i.e., REDD+ readiness). UN-REDD has assisted 32
Emissions from Deforestation
countries to finalize national REDD+ strategies and supported over 45 countries
and Forest Degradation (UN-
in developing national forest monitoring systems. As of 2020, several countries
REDD)
were on the brink of meeting al four objectives of REDD+ readiness under the
program: Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Indonesia, and
Paraguay. The European Union and Denmark, Japan, Luxemburg, Norway, Spain,
and Switzerland fund UN-REDD. Donors have provided a cumulative $333.7
mil ion to UN-REDD since its inception in 2008, with 85.6% of the funds
contributed by Norway.
Forest Carbon Partnership
The FCPF is a partnership of governments, businesses, civil society, and
Facility (FCPF)
Indigenous peoples’ organizations that aims to implement REDD+. FCPF
implements REDD+ through the Readiness Fund, which focuses on helping
countries become REDD ready, and the Carbon Fund, which provides results-
based payments to REDD+-ready countries. The FCPF has 47 country
participants and 17 donors, which have provided approximately $1.3 bil ion in
contributions and commitments since its inception in 2008. The United States is a
donor to both funds.

63 UN-REDD Programme, 2020: 12th Consolidated Annual Progress Report of the U.N.-REDD Programme Fund,
2020, p. 5, at https://2020ar.unredd.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/UN-REDD-2020-Annual-Report.pdf.
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Initiative
Description
Forest Investment Program
The FIP provides grants and concessional loans through multilateral development
(FIP)
banks for countries to address drivers of deforestation and implement REDD+.
The program is administered by the World Bank and has al ocated approximately
$603 mil ion to 51 projects, largely in Latin America and Africa.
BioCarbon Fund Initiative for
ISFL, initiated in 2013, is a multilateral fund, supported by donor governments
Sustainable Forest Landscapes and managed by the World Bank. ISFL aims to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions
(ISFL)
from the land sector and includes efforts to implement REDD+, sustainable
agriculture, and land use planning policies and practices. Donors include
Germany, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, and the United States.
Capital in the fund is approximately $355.0 mil ion as of 2020.
Green Climate Fund (GCF)
The GCF is an international fund derived from the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change. The GCF, operational in 2014, aims to assist
lower-income countries in their efforts to address climate change through
administering grants and other concessional financing for mitigation and
adaptation projects, programs, policies, and activities related to addressing
climate change. Contributions from donor countries and private sources
capitalize the GCF; donor countries such as the United States, Japan, Germany,
the United Kingdom, France, and others provide approximately 66% of the fund’s
capital, and private sources provide approximately 34%. The GCF has approved
190 projects in 127 developing countries and has committed approximately $10.0
bil ion in financing. A portion of the fund addresses forest and land use issues,
including REDD+.
Central African Forest
CAFI focuses on helping six partner countries in Africa (Cameroon, the Central
Initiative (CAFI)
African Republic, the Democratic Republic of the Congo [DRC], Equatorial
Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo) implement the Paris Agreement,
reduce poverty, develop sustainably, and implement biodiversity activities. CAFI
has approximately $500 mil ion committed for 30 programs, a large majority
located in the DRC. Donors include the European Union, France, Germany,
Netherlands, Norway, and South Korea.
Sources:
a. UN-REDD Programme, 2020: 12th Consolidated Progress Report of the UN-REDD Programme Fund, 2020, at
https://2020ar.unredd.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/UN-REDD-2020-Annual-Report.pdf.
b. FCPF, “About the FCPF,” at https://www.forestcarbonpartnership.org/about.
c. FIP, “Achieving a Triple Win,” fact sheet, Climate Investment Funds, 2017, at
https://www.climateinvestmentfunds.org/sites/cif_enc/files/fip_factsheet_0.pdf.
d. ISFL, “Who We Are,” at https://www.biocarbonfund-isfl.org/who-we-are.
e. GCF, GCF at a Glance: Project Portfolio, October 7, 2021, https://www.greenclimate.fund/sites/default/files/
document/gcf-project-portfolio-eng.pdf.
f.
CAFI, “Accelerating Reforms in Central Africa,” at https://www.cafi.org/.
Note: REDD+ = Reductions in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation.
Bilateral Assistance
Several countries, including the United States and Norway, provide bilateral assistance to
implement REDD+ at the national level. For example, Norway’s International Climate and Forest
Initiative aims to reduce the destruction of tropical forests and conserve biodiversity, while
promoting sustainable development and al eviating poverty.64 The program was initiated in 2008
and aims to provide approximately $350.0 mil ion annual y to fund REDD+ activities. The

64 Norway’s International Climate and Forest Initiative (NICFI), “How Do We Work?,” at https://www.nicfi.no/how-
do-we-work/.
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program entered into partnerships with Brazil and Indonesia to pay for reducing deforestation;
however, both partnerships have been terminated. Norway continues to work with Colombia,
Peru, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and other countries on REDD+.65
Public Private Partnerships
Several public-private partnerships also address REDD+. For example, the Lowering Emissions
by Accelerating Forest Finance (LEAF) Coalition is an initiative that combines efforts from
Norway, the United Kingdom, and the United States with companies such as Amazon, Airbnb,
Bayer, Nestlé, Salesforce, and Unilever, among others.66 LEAF aims to support emissions
reductions in a REDD+ framework in tropical and subtropical forested countries. LEAF plans to
secure $1.0 billion to implement REDD+ at the jurisdictional and sub-jurisdictional levels. In its
initial cal for proposals, LEAF deemed countries as wel as subnational governing entities (e.g.,
states) eligible for purchase agreements with participating donors.
U.S. Initiatives to Address REDD+
The United States addresses international aspects of REDD+ directly through the Natural Climate
Solutions Program (NCSP), under the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), and
indirectly through other federal agencies. (See Table 6.) NCSP, formerly cal ed the Sustainable
Landscapes Program, aims to help partner nations protect, manage, and restore forests and other
landscapes. It focuses on assisting countries with global y important forests that are threatened
and where the degradation of ecosystems impairs development and stimulates excess carbon
emissions.67 NCSP also aims to help partner countries build systems to conduct forest inventories
and monitor, report, and verify carbon emissions; build programs for forest management; and
improve forest livelihoods for local communities.68
USAID’s biodiversity activities also address forested landscapes. Biodiversity activities have two
goals: (1) conserve biodiversity in target areas and (2) integrate biodiversity as a component of
human development.69 Biodiversity activities that address REDD+ activities include the Central
Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) and conservation in the Amazon, among
others. CARPE was established in 1995 as a long-term, multifaceted program to “promote
sustainable forest management, biodiversity conservation, and climate change mitigation in the
[Central Africa] region through sustainable natural resource management, and strengthened
conservation policy development and implementation.” The Amazon program is intended to help
Brazil manage protected areas, encourage the private sector to improve sustainable livelihoods for
Amazonian communities, and provide science and technology to improve conservation practices,
among other activities.70

65 NICFI, “Partner Countries,” at https://www.nicfi.no/partner-countries/.
66 Lowering Emissions by Accelerating Forest Finance (LEAF) Coalition, “LEAF Coalition,” at
https://leafcoalition.org/.
67 USAID, “National Climate Solutions,” at https://www.usaid.gov/climate/natural-solutions. Hereafter USAID,
“National Climate Solutions.”
68 USAID, “National Climate Solutions.”
69 USAID, USAID Biodiversity Policy, March 2014, p. 10. In addition to these two goals, the policy sets six objectives
for programs.
70 USAID, “ Bilateral Biodiversity Conservation,” July 12, 2021, at https://www.usaid.gov/brazil/our-work/
environmental-partnerships.
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The United States bilateral y addresses deforestation and forest-related issues through free trade
agreements and other bilateral agreements with certain countries. For example, the U.S.-Peru
Trade Promotion Agreement contains provisions to enhance forest management in Peru and
reduce il egal logging.71
Table 6. Selected U.S. Programs That Address International Deforestation
Federal Agency
Description
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)
National Climate Solutions Program
The National Climate Solutions Program aims to reduce greenhouse-
gas emissions from deforestation and forest degradation. USAID and
the U.S. Department of State draw funds for bilateral and regional
programming from larger accounts in their budgets to support this
program.
Biodiversity Programs
Biodiversity conservation activities conducted by USAID aim to help
developing countries maintain biodiversity and habitats, as wel as the
environmental services they provide. USAID funds projects and
activities in approximately 60 countries throughout the world and
emphasizes sustainable development and community-based
conservation. Biodiversity conservation activities are broadly
authorized by Section 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961
(22 U.S.C. §2151q).
U.S. Department of State
International Conservation Programs
Funding for international conservation programs covers international
treaties, programs, and conventions that address conservation and, in
some cases, forest issues. These treaties include the Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(CITES), Intergovernmental Platform for Biodiversity and Ecosystem
Services, U.N. Forum on Forests, International Tropical Timber
Organization, and Food and Agriculture Organization’s National Forest
Program Facility, among others.
U.S. Department of the Treasury
Tropical Forest Conservation Act
The TFCA authorized debt-for-nature transactions, where developing
(TFCA; 22 U.S.C. §§2431 et seq.)
country debt is exchanged for local funds to conserve tropical forests
and coral reefs.
Global Environmental Facility (GEF)
The GEF is a multilateral environmental trust fund that supports
projects with global environmental benefits related to six areas:
biodiversity, climate change, international waters, the ozone layer, land
degradation, and persistent organic pol utants. Al ocation of funding
across these six areas varies annual y.
U.S. Forest Service (FS)
International Programs
The FS International Programs office promotes sustainable forest
management and biodiversity conservation international y. The office
has three main units: Technical Cooperation, Policy, and Disaster
Assistance Response. Specific activities include managing protected
areas, protecting migratory species, engaging in landscape-level forest
planning, providing fire management training, curbing invasive species,
preventing il egal logging, promoting forest certification, reducing the
impacts of forest use, and developing non-timber forest products.

71 Peru T rade Promotion Agreement, 18.3.4 Annex on Forest Sector Governance, entered into force February 1, 2009,
at https://ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/peru-tpa.
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Reduction in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)

Source: CRS Report R46493, U.S. Funding for International Conservation and Biodiversity, by Pervaze A. Sheikh et al.
Notes: Funding and activities for forests may constitute a smal part of the objectives for the GEF and
international conservation programs under USAID. For more information on TFCA, see CRS Report RL31286,
Debt-for-Nature Initiatives and the Tropical Forest Conservation Act (TFCA): Status and Implementation, by Pervaze A.
Sheikh.
REDD+ and COP26
COP26 likely wil include discussions of REDD+, forest conservation, carbon sequestration
potential, and other land use activities. The discussion of REDD+ at COP26 may focus on (1) the
use of REDD+ activities to meet targets included in the National y Determined Contributions
(NDCs) for certain countries, (2) funding commitments to support REDD+ activities, and (3) the
role of commodity-specific deforestation policies to support REDD+, among other topics.72
Nationally Determined Contributions and Forests
Parties at COP26 may discuss the role of REDD+ in meeting targets stated in their own and other
countries’ NDCs. NDCs are countries’ pledged contributions of lower GHG emissions to meet the
goals of the PA. Article 5 of the PA acknowledged the role of REDD+ in mitigation strategies,
which led to the inclusion of REDD+ activities in NDCs. NDCs are countries’ pledged
contributions of lower GHG emissions to meet the goals of the PA.73 Article 5 of the PA
acknowledged the role of REDD+ in mitigation strategies, which led to the inclusion of REDD+
activities in NDCs. Most Parties to the PA (79%), in their NDCs, include mitigation measures to
address carbon emissions in the landuse sector.74 A majority of NDCs reviewed refer to aspects of
REDD+, including afforestation, reforestation, and revegetation; sustainable forest management;
land restoration; and forest conservation. Specifical y, 29% of the NDCs refer to reduced
deforestation and forest degradation. The NDC Synthesis Report also notes that, “many
developing country Parties referred to reducing deforestation as a priority with high mitigation
potential, including through efforts to implement REDD+ activities.”75
Some policymakers note that countries are interested in increasing their forest-related
commitments in updated NDCs submitted prior to COP26.76 Many NDCs that reference or
recognize forestry’s role in lowering carbon emissions do not include specific targets for reducing
deforestation. For example, a 2020 survey found that of the 130 initial NDCs that mentioned
forestry, 50 contained quantitative forest landscape restoration targets for GHG mitigation or
climate adaptation.77 Some policymakers anticipate that updated NDCs for COP26 may include

72 Additional REDD+ topics may include the rights of Indigenous peoples and local communities, gender equity,
climate adaptation, and biodiversity, among others. T hese topics are beyond the scope of this report.
73 For more information, see CRS Report R46945, Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction Pledges by Selected
Countries: Nationally Determ ined Contributions and Net-Zero Legislation, by Kezee Procita.
74 UNFCCC, Nationally Determined Contributions Under the Paris Agreement: Synthesis Report by the Secretariat,
October 25, 2021, at https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/cma2021_08rev01_adv.pdf . (Hereinafter, UNFCCC,
NDC Synthesis Report.) As of the publication of this report, not all countries had submitted updated or new NDCs.
75 UNFCCC, NDC Synthesis Report.
76 Each party to the Paris Agreement was required to submit an intended NDC, which became the party’s first NDC
upon ratification. Every five years, parties are required to submit NDCs that reflect a progressive set of emission
reduction targets. T he next round of NDCs was due in 2020, but many countries are in the process of submitting new
NDCs in late 2021, leading up to COP26, which was postponed as a result of the global Coronavirus Disease 2019
pandemic.
77 IUCN, Outlook for Boosting Ambition in 2020 Nationally Determined Contributions Through Forest Landscape
Restoration Targets, policy brief, 2020, at https://www.iucn.org/sites/dev/files/content/documents/
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Reduction in Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+)

specific goals and conditions for implementing REDD+ activities. For example, Indonesia stated
in its updated NDC that it aims to restore 2 mil ion ha of peatlands and 12 mil ion ha of degraded
land by 2030.78
Funding to Implement REDD+
Developing countries may seek financial commitments at COP26 to implement REDD+ to meet
their NDC targets and support carbon markets. Several countries, including Cameroon, the
Central African Republic, the Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Indonesia, have
submitted NDCs with REDD+ targets that are conditional upon the receipt of foreign aid.79 Donor
countries, however, may question the success of REDD+ to date and may consider introducing
reforms for REDD+ implementation at COP26. Some analysts suggest there is a need to conduct
an independent cost-benefit analysis of the effectiveness of REDD+ funds,80 whereas others
contend REDD+ initiatives should improve accessibility of finances to a range of stakeholders and
increase the role of civil society in implementation.81
Deforestation and Commodities
Several policymakers have suggested commodity-specific deforestation policies to support
REDD+.82 This concept could emerge in discussions at COP26. For example, reports suggest the
United Kingdom might propose an initiative at COP26 to address deforestation by asking
producers of commodities such as soybeans, cocoa, coffee, and palm oil to commit to reduce or
stop clearing forested land for commodity production. The proposed initiative also may ask for
new funding commitments from parties to lower deforestation and forest degradation.83
The initiative that the United Kingdom may propose at COP26 would be an extension of the
Forest, Agriculture, Commodity, and Trade (FACT) Dialogue. FACT, with the support of 25
countries,84 aims to lower deforestation by implementing the sustainable trade of commodities;
increase the involvement of smal holders, local communities, and Indigenous peoples in
agricultural commodity supply chains; increase transparency and traceability of commodities to
inform policy; and increase research and development in the trade of commodities to improve
ecosystems’ sustainability.85

outlook_for_boosting_ambition_in_2020_ndcs_through_flr_targets_ -_policy_brief_-_final_0.pdf.
78 Republic of Indonesia, “Updated Nationally Determined Contribution,” July 21, 2021, available from UNFCCC
Interim NDC Registry at https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/NDCStaging/Pages/All.aspx.
79 UNFCCC, NDC Synthesis Report.
80 Peter Yeung, “ As COP26 Looms and T ropical Deforestation Soars, the REDD+ Debate Soars On,” Mongobay, April
15, 2021, at https://news.mongabay.com/2021/04/as-cop26-looms-and-tropical-deforestation-soars-redd-debate-roars-
on/.
81 Molly Millar, Forest Voices: The Path Forward for Strengthening Forest Governance, Chatham House, October 14,
2021.
82 For example, see Darren McKenzie, “Why Financial Institutions Hold the Power to Stopping Deforestation,” Global
Canopy, Insight (blog), October 15, 2021, at https://globalcanopy.org/insights/insight/why-financial-institutions-hold-
the-power-to-stopping-deforestation/.
83 Patrick Greenfield and Fiona Harvey, “U.K. to Push Plan to ‘Halt and Reverse Global Deforestation by 2030’ at
COP26,” Guardian, October 15, 2021, at https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/oct/15/uk-to-push-plan-to-
halt-and-reverse-global-deforestation-by-2030-at-cop26-aoe.
84 T he United States is not a signatory.
85 United Kingdom Cabinet Office, Joint Statement on Principles for Collaboration Under the Forest, Agriculture,
Com m odity, and Trade (FACT) Dialogue, July 27, 2021, at https://www.gov.uk/government/news/joint -statement-on-
principles-for-collaboration-under-the-forest-agriculture-and-commodity-trade-fact-dialogue.
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Some in Congress support tying the trade in commodities to il egal deforestation through pending
bil s in the 117th Congress. For example, H.R. 5508 and S. 2950 would prohibit the import into
the United States of commodities derived from il egal y deforested land and would require
foreign countries without adequate means to address deforestation to develop and implement an
action plan to address il egal deforestation before commodities could be exported to the United
States.
Addressing drivers of deforestation and forest degradation are broader than REDD+ activities and
may include a suite of approaches applied at different jurisdictional levels. At the national level,
countries may increase the area of protected lands that contain forests; improve enforcement of
laws aimed at reducing or preventing deforestation; and reduce incentives for activities that
promote drivers of deforestation, such as agricultural expansion. At the private level, corporations
may commit to practices that lower deforestation and remove goods derived from recently
deforested lands from commodity supply chains. At al levels, forest conservation may be tied to
the ecosystem services that forests provide; forest restoration may be stimulated by a need to
improve water quality in a watershed, to buffer the impacts of storm surges during hurricanes, and
to support snowpack in areas with seasonal drought. Parties at COP26 might take a broader look
at forests in their role as nature-based infrastructure to justify policies to conserve forests for
reasons beyond their role in the carbon cycle.

Author Information

Pervaze A. Sheikh
Anne A. Riddle
Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Analyst in Natural Resources Policy

Kezee Procita
Katie Hoover
Senior Research Librarian
Specialist in Natural Resources Policy

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Congressional Research Service
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