Europe: Fact Sheet on Parliamentary and Presidential Elections

Europe: Fact Sheet on Parliamentary and Presidential Elections

Europe: Fact Sheet on Parliamentary and Presidential Elections

Updated January 24, 2025

Congressional Research Service

https://crsreports.congress.gov

R46858

Europe: Fact Sheet on Parliamentary and Presidential Elections

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 European Elections in 2025 ............................................................................................................. 2

European Parliamentary and Presidential Elections ........................................................................ 4

Figures

Figure 1. European Elections in 2025 ............................................................................................. 3

Tables

Table 1. European Parliamentary and Presidential Elections .......................................................... 4

Contacts

Author Information .......................................................................................................................... 7

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Introduction

This report provides a map of parliamentary and presidential elections that have held or are scheduled to be held at the national level in Europe in 2025, and a table of recent and upcoming parliamentary and presidential elections at the national level in Europe. It includes dates for direct parliamentary elections only, and excludes indirect elections.¹

Europe is defined in this product as the 50 countries under the portfolio of the U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs. The report does not include the Holy See (Vatican City), as there are no direct presidential or parliamentary elections held there. Electoral rules and governance structures can vary widely across European countries.

Twelve European countries have held or are scheduled to hold direct parliamentary and/or presidential elections in 2025. Some dates may be subject to change due to snap elections,² parliamentary votes of no confidence, or other factors. For instance, Romania plans to hold a two- round presidential election on May 8 and 16, 2025 after the country’s Constitutional Court annulled the results of the first round of the election, which was held on November 24, 2024. The court annulled the election result following accusations of Russian interference. In Ukraine, elections are not to occur under martial law, which has been in effect since the February 24, 2022, Russian invasion. Ukraine was originally scheduled to hold a presidential election in 2024 and parliamentary elections by October 2023.

Included in the list of national elections in Europe are elections that the governments of Azerbaijan, Belarus, and the Russian Federation have announced. These three governments do not hold elections that international observers consider to be free or fair.³

Parliament, or the legislative body, may be unicameral, with one legislative chamber, or bicameral, with a lower and upper chamber. In bicameral systems, the lower chamber is usually directly elected by the people and is the more powerful of the two (for example, the House of Commons in the United Kingdom). The upper chamber is frequently appointed or indirectly elected, and has more limited powers (for example, the House of Lords in the United Kingdom). Both the lower and upper chambers are directly elected in six countries (Czech Republic, Italy, Poland, Romania, Spain, and Switzerland).

The presidential election process in European countries varies.⁴ In many European countries, presidents or heads of state are elected directly by the people in a popular vote; in 13 countries,

1 A direct election is an election where a political party or elected representative is chosen directly through a vote of the citizens. An indirect election is one where the citizen’s vote for an intermediate body that is empowered to select the elected official(s).

2 In a parliamentary system, a snap election is an election that is held prior to its regularly scheduled date.

3 Although dates are included for elections that the governments of Azerbaijan, Belarus, and the Russian Federation have announced, these three governments do not hold elections that international observers consider to be free or fair. Azerbaijan, Belarus, and Russia are considered “authoritarian” governments according to Freedom House’s Freedom in the World 2023. See Freedom in the World 2023 country scores at https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/ scores. For more information on Belarus and Russia, see CRS In Focus IF10814, Belarus: An Overview, by Cory Welt, and CRS Report R46518, Russia: Domestic Politics and Economy, by Cory Welt and Rebecca M. Nelson.

4 In parliamentary republics, the president as head of state typically has a ceremonial and largely nonpolitical role. In these republics, executive power arises from the legislature and is vested in a prime minister as head of government. In some parliamentary republics, the prime minister is chosen as part of political party negotiations following parliamentary elections; in others, the prime minister may be chosen by the president and/or approved by the parliament. The role of prime minister is often fulfilled by the leader of the majority party or majority coalition of parliament. In presidential republics, presidents are elected directly by the people and serve as both the head of state (continued...)

Europe: Fact Sheet on Parliamentary and Presidential Elections

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presidents are indirectly elected by Members of Parliament.⁵ There are 12 monarchies in Europe, including the Holy See.⁶ In lieu of a president, monarchs typically serve as the head of state with limited or ceremonial powers.⁷ In these instances, presidential elections are denoted as N/A or nonapplicable in the table below.

CRS has gathered the information presented in this report from numerous sources, including the U.S. Department of State, Central Intelligence Agency’s (CIA’s) World Factbook, International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) Election Guide, Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), and other news sources.

Figure 1 includes a map and calendar of the European parliamentary and presidential elections to be held in 2025.

Table 1 provides the dates of the last and next parliamentary and presidential direct elections in Europe. The “last election/runoff” column displays the dates of the most recent direct parliamentary and/or presidential elections. In many instances, the “last election/runoff” column includes more than one date, as parliamentary and/or presidential elections may occur in two rounds with the top two candidates from an initial election advancing to a runoff election if no candidate receives a majority (this is the system in France).

The “next election” column indicates the projected date when the next direct national election is expected to be held, based on law or practice. In most European countries, general elections occur at least once every four to six years. Unless laws or decisions in a particular country set a specific election day, dates are calculated based on the dates of the most recent election and length of the term. Elections that are expected to occur by a specific month/year are listed in the table according to that month/year.

European Elections in 2025

Twelve European countries have held or are scheduled to hold either presidential and/or parliamentary elections in 2025.

and the head of government. Cyprus and Turkey (Türkiye) are the only countries in Europe with a full presidential system. See Table 1 for more information on Turkey. Semi-presidential republics, such as France, are a hybrid of these systems, providing for both a directly elected president and a prime minister responsible to parliament.

5 The 13 countries are Albania, Armenia, Estonia, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Kosovo, Latvia, Malta, San Marino, and Switzerland.

6 Per the CIA World Factbook, Denmark, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom are considered constitutional monarchies. Belgium is referred to as a parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy. The Holy See is labeled an ecclesiastical elective monarchy (or “absolute monarchy”). Andorra is considered a “parliamentary democracy” that retains its heads of state in the form of a co- principality; “the two princes–the president of France and the Spanish bishop of Urgell–serve with joint authority as heads of state.” For more information see https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/.

7 Some parliamentary systems, such as that of the United Kingdom, coexist with hereditary monarchies. In these systems, called parliamentary constitutional monarchies, monarchs typically serve as the head of state with limited or ceremonial powers. Prime ministers serve as the head of government, and may be appointed formally by the monarch, based on election results and often with the approval of parliament.

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Figure 1. European Elections in 2025

Source: Created by CRS, using data from the U.S. Department of State, Central Intelligence Agency’s (CIA’s) World Factbook, International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) Election Guide, Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), and other news sources. Notes: Map is current as of January 16, 2025. Table includes direct elections only. Ukraine is not included, as elections cannot occur while under martial law. Europe is defined as the 50 countries (excluding the Holy See) under the portfolio of the U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs.

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European Parliamentary and Presidential Elections

Table 1. European Parliamentary and Presidential Elections

Parliamentary Elections Presidential Elections

Country

Last Election/

Runoff Next Election

Last Election/

Runoff Next Election

Albania Apr. 25, 2021 May 11, 2025 Indirect Indirect

Andorra Apr. 2, 2023 Apr. 2027 N/A N/A

Armenia June 20, 2021 June 2026 Indirect Indirect

Austria Sept. 29, 2024 Sept. 2029 Oct. 9, 2022 Oct. 2028

Azerbaijana Sept. 1, 2024 Sept. 2029 Feb. 7, 2024b Feb. 2031

Belarusa Feb. 25, 2024 Feb. 2028 Aug. 9, 2020 Jan. 26, 2025

Belgium June 9, 2024 June 2029 N/A N/A

Bosnia and Herzegovina

Oct. 2, 2022 Oct. 2026 Oct. 2, 2022 Oct. 2026

Bulgaria October 27, 2024c Oct. 2028 Nov. 14, 2021/ Nov. 21,2021

Nov. 2026

Croatia Apr. 17, 2024d Apr. 2028 Dec. 29, 2024/ January 12, 2025e

Dec. 2029

Cyprus May 30, 2021 May 2026 Feb. 5, 2023/ Feb. 12, 2023

Feb. 2028

Czech Republic

Chamber of Deputies: Oct. 8-9, 2021 Senate: Sept. 20, 2024/ Sept. 28, 2024

Chamber of Deputies: Oct. 2025 Senate: Sept. 2026

Jan. 13-14, 2023/ Jan. 27-28, 2023

Jan. 2028

Denmark Nov. 1, 2022 Oct. 2026 N/A N/A

Estonia Mar. 5, 2023 Mar. 2027 Indirect Indirect

Finland Apr. 2, 2023 Apr. 2027 Jan. 28, 2024/ Feb. 11, 2024

Jan. 2030

France June 30, 2024/ July 7, 2024f

June 2029 Apr. 10, 2022/ Apr. 24, 2022

Apr. 2027

Georgia Oct. 26, 2024g Oct. 2028 Oct. 28, 2018h Indirect

Germany Sept. 26, 2021 Feb. 23, 2025i Indirect Indirect

Greece June 25, 2023 June 2027 Indirect Indirect

Hungary Apr. 3, 2022 Apr. 2026 Indirect Indirect

Iceland Nov. 30, 2024j Nov. 2028 June 1, 2024 June 2028

Ireland Nov. 29, 2024k Nov. 2029 Oct. 26, 2018 Oct. 2025

Italy Chamber of Deputies & Senate: Sept. 25, 2022

Chamber of Deputies & Senate: Sept. 2027

Indirect Indirect

Kosovo Feb. 14, 2021 Feb. 9, 2025 Indirect Indirect

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Parliamentary Elections Presidential Elections

Country

Last Election/

Runoff Next Election

Last Election/

Runoff Next Election

Latvia Oct. 1, 2022 Oct. 2026 Indirect Indirect

Liechtenstein Feb. 7, 2021 Feb. 9, 2025 N/A N/A

Lithuania Oct. 13, 2024/ Oct. 27, 2024

Oct. 2028 May 12, 2024/ May 26, 2024

May 2029

Luxembourg Oct. 8, 2023 Oct. 2028 N/A N/A

Malta Mar. 26, 2022 Mar. 2027 Indirect Indirect

Moldova July 11, 2021 July 2025 Oct. 20, 2024/ Nov. 3, 2024

Nov. 2028

Monaco Feb. 5, 2023 Feb. 2028 N/A N/A

Montenegro June 11, 2023 June 2027 March 19, 2023/ Apr. 2, 2023

Mar. 2028

Netherlands Nov. 22, 2023 Nov. 2027 N/A N/A

North Macedonia

May 8, 2024 May 2029 Apr. 24, 2024/ May 8, 2024

Apr. 2029

Norway Sept. 13, 2021 Sept. 8, 2025 N/A N/A

Poland Sejm & Senate: Oct. 15, 2023

Sejm & Senate: Oct. 2027

June 28, 2020/ July 12, 2020

May 2025

Portugal Mar. 10, 2024 Mar. 2028 Jan. 24, 2021 Jan. 2026

Romania Chamber of Deputies & Senate: Dec. 1, 2024

Chamber of Deputies & Senate: Dec. 2028

Nov. 24, 2024 (annulled)l

May 8, 2025 / May 18, 2025

Russian Federationa

Sept. 19, 2021 Sept. 2026 Mar. 15-17, 2024 Mar. 2030

San Marino June 9, 2024 June 2029 Indirect Indirect

Serbia Dec. 17, 2023 Dec. 2027 Apr. 3, 2022 Apr. 2027

Slovakia Sept. 30, 2023 Sept. 2027 Mar. 23, 2024/ Apr. 6, 2024

Mar. 2029

Slovenia Apr. 24, 2022 Apr. 2026 Oct. 23, 2022/ Nov. 13, 2022

Oct. 2027

Spain Congress of Deputies & Senate: July 23, 2023

Congress of Deputies & Senate: July 2027

N/A N/A

Sweden Sept. 11, 2022 Sept. 13, 2026 N/A N/A

Switzerland National Council & Council of States: Oct. 22, 2023m

National Council & Council of States: Oct. 2027

Indirect Indirect

Turkeyn (Türkiye)o

May 14, 2023 May 2028 May 14, 2023/ May 28, 2023

May 2028

Ukraine July 21, 2019 Deferredp Mar. 31, 2019/ Apr. 21, 2019

Deferredp

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Parliamentary Elections Presidential Elections

Country

Last Election/

Runoff Next Election

Last Election/

Runoff Next Election

United Kingdom

July 4, 2024 July 2029 N/A N/A

Source: Created by CRS, using data from the U.S. Department of State, European Council, Central Intelligence Agency’s (CIA’s) World Factbook, International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) Election Guide, Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), and other news sources. Notes: Table is current as of January 16, 2025. Europe is defined as the 50 countries (excluding the Holy See) under the portfolio of the U.S. Department of State’s Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs. N/A means nonapplicable. The “last election/runoff” column may include more than one date, as parliamentary and/or presidential elections may often occur in two-rounds with the top two candidates from an initial election advancing to a runoff election if no candidate receives a majority. Unless a country sets a specific election day, dates in the “next election” column are calculated based on the dates of the most recent election and length of the term. Elections that are expected to occur by a specific month/year are listed in the table according to that month/year.

a. Although dates are included for elections that the governments of Azerbaijan, Belarus, and the Russian Federation have announced, these three governments do not hold elections that international observers consider to be free or fair. Azerbaijan, Belarus, and Russia are considered “authoritarian” governments according to Freedom House’s Freedom in the World 2024. See Freedom in the World 2024 country scores at https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/scores.

b. Azerbaijan originally had presidential and parliamentary elections scheduled for 2025. In December 2023, President Ilham Aliyev called for a snap presidential election for February 7, 2024. Parliamentary elections were later called for September 1, 2024.

c. On October 27, 2024, Bulgaria held its seventh parliamentary election since April 2021. Its last parliamentary election was held four months earlier, on June 9, 2024. However, government talks following the October 2024 election appear to have failed, paving the way for possible parliamentary elections in 2025.

d. Parliamentary elections in Croatia were to occur by July 2024. In March 2024, the government set April 17, 2024 as the election date.

e. A presidential election in Croatia was to occur by February 2025. In November 2024, the Croatian prime minister called for an early election to be held on December 29, 2024. A second round occurred on January 12, 2025.

f. France was due to hold a parliamentary election by June 2027. However, following elections to the European Parliament on June 9, 2024, French President Emmanuel Macron dissolved France’s parliament and announced early parliamentary elections, held in two rounds on June 30 and July 7, 2024.

g. Georgia’s president and opposition parties contested the October 2024 election results and U.S. and European leaders called upon the Georgian government to address concerns about the integrity of the elections. For more information see CRS Insight IN12456, Georgia: Incumbent Georgian Dream Claims Victory in Disputed Parliamentary Elections, by Cory Welt.

h. In Georgia, constitutional amendments in 2017 changed the presidential election to an indirect election. The 2018 presidential election in Georgia was the last in which the president was directly elected. In December 2024, an electoral college composed of Members of Parliament and local government representatives elected a new president.

i. Parliamentary elections in Germany were to occur by September 2025. However, following the collapse of the German Chancellor’s three-party coalition in November 2024, early parliamentary elections were called for February 23, 2025.

j. Parliamentary elections in Iceland were due to occur in 2025. However, in October 2024, Iceland’s Prime Minister announced the collapse of the coalition government, and called for the parliamentary election to be held on November 30, 2028.

k. Parliamentary elections in Ireland were due to occur in 2025. However, parliamentary elections were held on November 29, 2024, called for by the Irish Prime Minister in early November 2024.

l. Romania held a presidential election on November 24, 2024, with a second round scheduled for December 8, 2024. However, on December 6, 2024, the Constitutional Court of Romania annulled the results of the

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first round of the election, following accusations of Russian interference. In January 2025, Romania’s coalition government announced that a two-round presidential election will be held on May 8 and May 16, 2025.

m. Each canton in Switzerland organizes its elections for the Council of States. The first round of the election to

the Swiss Council of States is held at the same time as elections to the National Council in all cantons, with one exception. The canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden holds its elections on the last Sunday in April. Depending on the results of the election, a second round or runoff election may be required in some cantons.

n. On April 16, 2017, a constitutional referendum was held on amending the Turkish Constitution, including abolishing the office of the prime minister and replacing the country’s existing parliamentary system with a presidential system. The referendum passed. On June 24, 2018, Turkey held a snap election, reelecting President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. He was again reelected in a two-round contest in May 2023. U.S. and European Union officials have expressed a number of concerns about authoritarian governance and erosion of rule of law and civil liberties in Turkey. See State Department, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2023, Turkey; European Commission, Türkiye 2023 Report, November 8, 2023, and the European Commission, Türkiye Report 2024. For more information, see CRS Report R44000, Turkey (Türkiye): Major Issues and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti and Clayton Thomas. In March 2024 local elections, Erdoğan’s party came out with control over fewer mayoralties and failed to recapture the Istanbul and Ankara mayoralties. The main opposition Republican People’s Party won the greatest number of nationwide votes, marking the first time another party received more votes in an election than Erdoğan’s party.

o. “In late 2021, President Erdogan directed the use of “Türkiye” (the country’s name in Turkish) in place of “Turkey” or other equivalents (e.g., the German “Türkei,” the French “Turquie”) in Turkish government documents and communications. In June 2022, the United Nations accepted the Turkish request to change the country’s name at the body to “Türkiye.” In January 2023, the State Department spokesperson said that the department would use the revised spelling “in most formal diplomatic and bilateral contexts” where appropriate. The U.S. Board on Geographic Names retained both “Turkey” and “Republic of Turkey” as conventional names, and the spokesperson said that the State Department could use those names if it is in furtherance of broader public understanding. State Department Press Briefing, January 5, 2023.” See CRS Report R41368, Turkey (Türkiye): Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti and Clayton Thomas.

p. Ukraine was originally scheduled to hold a presidential election by March 2024 (parliamentary elections were to occur by October 2023). However, Ukrainian law does not allow elections to occur under martial law, which has been in effect since the February 24, 2022, Russian invasion.

Author Information

Sofia Plagakis Senior Research Librarian

Europe: Fact Sheet on Parliamentary and Presidential Elections

Congressional Research Service R46858 · VERSION 19 · UPDATED 8

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