Foreign Assistance and the Education Sector: Programs and Priorities

Foreign Assistance and the Education Sector: Programs and Priorities

Foreign Assistance and the Education Sector:
Programs and Priorities
Updated July 1, 2021
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R44676

Foreign Assistance and the Education Sector: Programs and Priorities

Summary
Education has long been a key focus sector within U.S. foreign assistance. Policymakers
general y agree that education is crucial to bettering livelihoods and improving economic stability
in developing countries. Researchers have found that investments in education lead to higher
incomes, economic stability, and better health, among other development outcomes.
While education access and quality in developing countries has general y improved in the 21st
century, chal enges remain. Global y, approximately 257 mil ion children and youth do not attend
school, and approximately 99 mil ion people aged 15-24 are il iterate. The Coronavirus Disease
2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has affected learners worldwide, with many analysts projecting
significant setbacks in the education sector for years to come.
Congress sets policy and priorities for the U.S. foreign assistance education sector through
authorization legislation and directs funding in annual appropriations measures. The Foreign
Assistance Act of 1961 (P.L. 87-195, as amended) includes provisions on education assistance,
and the Reinforcing Education Accountability in Development Act (READ Act, P.L. 115-56) and
Global Child Thrive Act of 2020 (P.L. 116-283, Div. A, Title XII) have set policy for basic
education and early childhood development, respectively. Annual y, Congress also directs specific
amounts of foreign assistance funds for basic and higher education purposes. For FY2021,
Congress designated at least a combined $1.235 bil ion in State Department, Foreign Operations
and Related Programs (SFOPS) appropriations for education programming—$950 mil ion for
basic education and $285 mil ion for higher education—representing 2.8% of the total foreign
operations appropriation (P.L. 116-260, Div. K).
Multiple U.S. government departments and agencies administer education assistance to
developing countries. The provision of basic education assistance is guided by the U.S.
Government Strategy on International Basic Education, Fiscal Years 2019-2023, which
articulates two principal priorities: (1) improving learning outcomes and (2) expanding access to
quality basic education for al , particularly marginalized and vulnerable populations. Higher
education assistance is often guided by individual agency guidance and priorities.
Three agencies—the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the Peace Corps, and
the Mil ennium Chal enge Corporation (MCC)—accounted for 96% of reported education
assistance in FY2019 (the most recent year for which comprehensive data are available).
Geographical y, more than 40% of education assistance in FY2019 went to countries in sub-
Saharan Africa. The remaining assistance was dedicated to global programs (19%), the Middle
East and North Africa (11%), and other regions (each representing <10% of assistance).
Assistance projects vary in scope, but interventions may include activities related to access,
enrollment, and retention; curriculum development; teacher support; the development and
distribution of textbooks and other learning materials; workforce development; education
management and policy reform; and school construction.
Congress has general y demonstrated bipartisan support for U.S. foreign assistance in the
education sector. Congress has also demonstrated interest in a number of associated issues,
including those related to program oversight, the funding and legislative emphasis on basic
education compared with higher education, and the use of technology and innovation in the
sector.

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Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1
The Global Education Landscape ...................................................................................... 3
The Role of Congress: Funding and Policy.......................................................................... 5
Annual Appropriations ............................................................................................... 5
Education Assistance Policy ........................................................................................ 8
U.S. Agencies Implementing Education Programs .............................................................. 10
USAID .................................................................................................................. 11
Peace Corps ............................................................................................................ 12
Millennium Challenge Corporation ............................................................................ 12
Other Agencies........................................................................................................ 13
Selected Types of Education Activities ............................................................................. 13
Access, Enrollment, and Retention ............................................................................. 14
Curriculum Development.......................................................................................... 15
Teacher Support ...................................................................................................... 15
Textbooks and Learning Materials Development and Distribution ................................... 16
Workforce Development ........................................................................................... 17
Education Management and Policy Reform ................................................................. 17
School Construction................................................................................................. 18
Issues for Congress ....................................................................................................... 19
Congressional Oversight of Education Sector Programming ........................................... 19
Historical Focus on Basic Education........................................................................... 21
Technology and Innovation in Education Assistance ..................................................... 22

Figures
Figure 1. Global Out-of-School Children and Youth and Official Basic Education
Development Assistance................................................................................................ 3
Figure 2. Global Il iterate Population and Official Education (Al Levels)
Development Assistance................................................................................................ 4
Figure 3. Education Assistance Appropriations, FY2000-FY2021 ........................................... 6
Figure 4. Education Assistance Appropriations vs. Obligations, FY2001-FY2019 ..................... 8
Figure 5. Agencies Implementing Education Assistance, FY2019 ......................................... 11
Figure 6. FY2019 Regional Distribution of Education Assistance ......................................... 14
Figure 7. Total Basic Education and Higher Education Appropriations, FY2000-FY2021 ........ 21

Contacts
Author Information ....................................................................................................... 23

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Foreign Assistance and the Education Sector: Programs and Priorities

Introduction
Successive U.S. Administrations and
Defining Education Assistance
Congresses have considered the education
This report encompasses al foreign assistance activities
sector an important component of U.S. foreign
funded by the U.S. government that aim to improve
assistance programming. As noted in a 1980
education in developing countries. These programs are
Government Accountability Office report on
largely authorized by Section 105 of the Foreign
Assistance Act of 1961 (FAA), as amended, and can be
U.S. Agency for International Development
divided into two categories:
(USAID) education programs, “Education is a
Basic education includes “(i) measurable
vital element in the successful socio-economic
improvements in literacy, numeracy, and other basic
development of a country. Ignorance and
skil s development that prepare an individual to be an
il iteracy hinder developing-country economic
active, productive member of society and the
development and block the poor from
workforce; (i ) workforce development, vocational
training, and digital literacy informed by real market
participating in and benefiting from economic
needs and opportunities and that results in measurable
development.”4
improvements in employment; (i i) programs and
activities designed to demonstrably improve—(I) early
Many organizations have found statistical
childhood, preprimary education, primary education,
support for the claim that education is crucial
and secondary education, which can be delivered in
to bettering livelihoods and improving
formal or nonformal education settings; and (II)
economic stability in developing countries.
learning for out-of-school youth and adults; and (iv)
Research supports the claim that the benefits
capacity building for teachers, administrators,
counselors, and youth workers that results in
of education extend beyond individuals, with
measurable improvements in student literacy,
ripple effects on the greater community. The
numeracy, or employment.”1
World Bank’s education strategy, for example,
Higher education includes activities conducted in an
cites studies that suggest the benefits of
effort to provide for “advanced education and training
education, including the following:5
of people of developing countries in such disciplines as
are required for planning and implementation of public
 Economic stability. Households with
and private development activities.”2 Higher education
more education, particularly those in
assistance may also include that provided under Section
214 of the FAA, American Schools and Hospitals
rural communities, cope with
Abroad, which provides assistance “to schools and
economic shocks and exploit new
libraries outside the United States founded or
economic opportunities better than
sponsored by United States citizens and serving as
less-educated households.6
study and demonstration centers for ideas and
practices of the United States.”3
 Decrease in infant and child
mortality rates. Women’s
educational attainment has been connected to decreases in infant and child
mortality. According to one study that compared recorded infant and child deaths
with their counterfactual estimates, one half of the 8.2 mil ion fewer deaths of

1 Section 105(c)(1)(A) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended (22 U.S.C. §2151c(c)(1)(A)). Section 3 of
P.L. 115-56 (131 Stat. 1130) added subsection (c).
2 Section 105(b) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended (22 U.S.C. §2151c(b)).
3 Section 214(a) of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended (22 U.S.C. §2174(a)).
4 U.S. General Accounting Office, U.S. Efforts To Educate and Train The Poor In Developing Countries, ID-80-18,
May 5, 1980, p. 1.
5 Examples shared in World Bank Group, Learning for All: Investing in People’s Knowledge and Skills to Promote
Developm ent, World Bank Group Education Strategy 2020, Washington, DC, 2011, pp. 12 -13.
6 Frankenberg, E., J. Smith, and D. T homas. 2003, “Economic Shocks, Wealth, and Welfare.” T he Journal of Human
Resources 38 (2): 280–321.
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children age 5 and younger between 1970 and 2009 can be attributed to more
education among women of reproductive age.7
 Adaptation to environmental change. Countries with better-educated female
populations are more capable of coping with and preventing loss of life as a
result of extreme weather events than countries with low levels of female
education.8
The international community has widely accepted the importance of education in international
development. In 2000, U.N. member states made achieving universal primary education one of
the eight Mil ennium Development Goals (MDGs), a development roadmap meant to prioritize
both donor and developing country development efforts from 2000 to 2015. In 2015, they
included quality education as one of the 17 fol ow-on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), an
analogous framework for 2015 through 2030. According to the U.N. resolution establishing the
SDGs, the goal for 2030 is to provide “inclusive and equitable quality education at al levels.”9
Today, a number of stakeholders—including Members of Congress, executive branch agencies,
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), multilateral organizations, private sector companies, and
recipient country governments—continue to advocate for U.S. education assistance to developing
countries. In 2017, Congress passed the Reinforcing Education Accountability in Development
(READ) Act (P.L. 115-56, Div. A). Among other provisions, the act articulated U.S. policy for
education assistance, required a whole-of-government strategy for administering basic education
assistance, and established oversight mechanisms through which progress could be measured. In
response to the act, the Trump Administration released the U.S. Government Strategy on
International Basic Education in September 2018. The holistic strategy aims to “achieve a world
where education systems in partner countries enable al individuals to acquire the education and
skil s to be productive members of society.”10
U.S. agencies also have incorporated education assistance into their respective plans and policies.
The State Department and USAID’s Joint Strategic Plan, released in February 2018, cites
education as one of the tools by which the United States can help lift developing countries out of
poverty, “drive inclusive and sustainable development, open new markets and support U.S.
prosperity and security objectives.”11 In its 2018 Education Policy, USAID further elaborates on
this sentiment by noting that access to quality education “leads to greater economic growth,
improved health outcomes, sustained democratic governance, and more peaceful and resilient
societies.”12

7 Emannuela Gakidou et al., 2010, “Increased Educational Attainment and its Effect on Child Mortality in 175
Countries between 1970 and 2009: A Systematic Analysis.” The Lancet 376 (9745): 959–74.
8 Brian Blankespoor et al., 2010, “Adaptation to Climate Ext remes in Developing Countries: T he Role of Education.”
Policy Research Working Paper 5342, World Bank, Washington, DC. Others suggest broadly that more educated
populations, regardless of gender, are better equipped to respond to and mitigate the effects o f climate change. See, for
example, UNESCO, Clim ate Change Education and Awareness, at https://en.unesco.org/themes/addressing-climate-
change/climate-change-education-and-awareness.
9 United Nations General Assembly, Transforming our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, A/RES/70/1, New York, NY, September 25, 2015, p. 7, at
http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/70/1&Lang=E.
10 U.S. Government Strategy on International Basic Education, Fiscal Years 2019 -2023, September 14, 2018, at
https://www.usaid.gov/education/usg-strategy.
11 U.S. Department of State and USAID, Joint Strategic Plan 2018-2022, February 2018, p. 38, at
https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/Joint-Strategic-Plan-FY-2018-2022.pdf.
12 USAID, USAID Education Policy, November 2018, p. 4, at https://www.usaid.gov/education/policy.
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This report provides an overview of the current global education landscape, Congress’s role in
education assistance funding and policy, the U.S. agencies responsible for administering
education assistance, the various types of education assistance activities, and issues of interest to
Congress. This report does not encompass the international education exchange programs
managed by the Department of State, which are chiefly designed to enhance U.S. public
diplomacy rather than facilitate developing countries’ economic development.
The Global Education Landscape
Development assistance for education is usual y intended to either increase access to education or
improve the quality of education. There have been significant improvements in global education
access in the 21st century. The overal number of out-of-school children and youth, for example,
declined by nearly 32% (from approximately 375 mil ion to 257 mil ion) between 2000 and 2019
(Figure 1). The greatest decline was among primary school-aged children (41%), with lower-
secondary and upper-secondary youths experiencing smal er declines (38% and 22%
respectively). Further, in the context of the growing global population, the proportion of out-of-
school children compared with the population has shrunk over time.
Figure 1. Global Out-of-School Children and Youth and Official Basic Education
Development Assistance

Source: Graphic created by CRS using UNESCO and OECD DAC Data (2019 is the most recent year for
which complete data are available).
Literacy, which is considered a common indicator for education quality, has also improved in
recent decades by some measures. The global il iterate population aged 15-24 declined by 31%
(Figure 2) between 2000 and 2019 (from approximately 145 mil ion to 99 mil ion), with women
and girls accounting for the steepest decline (38%). Notably, the literacy gap between women and
men in that age group also narrowed: women accounted for 61% of the global il iterate
population in 2000 and 55% of that population in 2019. As indicated in both figures, these
declines also coincide with general increased investment in official development assistance for
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international basic education programs and overal international education programs, respectively,
as reported by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Development Assistance Committee (DAC) and adjusted for inflation. In many instances,
developing countries have achieved improved education outcomes as local governments have
increased their investment in education systems. For example, between 2002 and 2017 (years for
which data are available), Senegal’s government expenditure on education, when adjusted for
inflation, grew from $291 mil ion to $1.01 bil ion. In that same time period, the country’s
il iterate population shrunk from 1.09 mil ion to 922,531.
Figure 2. Global Illiterate Population and Official Education (All Levels)
Development Assistance

Source: Graphic created by CRS using UNESCO and OECD DAC Data (2019 is the most recent year for
which complete data are available).
Despite such gains, the chal enges in international education remain great. The number of out-of-
school children and youth hit a historic low of nearly 256 mil ion in 2017, but has since risen.
According to 2019 estimates, more than 257 mil ion children and youth—nearly one in five—
were out-of-school.13 Literacy rates have also lagged behind improvements in access; for
instance, the level of il iterate men and boys aged 15-24 has appeared to stagnate or rise each year
since 2014. Education access and quality improvements have also not been experienced equitably,
and many regions or countries have experienced increases in out-of-school and il iteracy rates
even as the global rates have declined. For example, between 2000 and 2019, the number of out-
of-school children in sub-Saharan Africa grew by 6%. In that same period, the number of il iterate

13 UNESCO data accessed on March 31, 2021, available at http://data.uis.unesco.org/. Out-of-school accounts for
children and youth who are not enrolled in formal education. Data do not account for children who may be home-
schooled. For more, see UNESCO, New Methodology Shows 258 Million Children, Adolescents and Youth Are Out of
School, UIS/2019/ED/FS/56, September 13, 2019.
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men aged 15-24 in Arab states grew by more than 19%.14 Further, in some cases, education
systems may not be equipped to keep pace with the number of new learners. For example,
UNICEF in 2017 asserted that the number of primary school teachers in Africa would need to
double by 2030 just to maintain then-current primary school enrollment rates.15 With growing
global economic inequality, some in the international community have argued for focusing
international development in the education sector on inclusivity in education, rather than on
overal education gains.16
Final y, education programming does not exist in a vacuum; the social and economic
environments in which education programs take place can present severe chal enges to their long-
term success. Conditions such as teacher shortages and absences, school fees, learner absenteeism
and lateness, classroom overcrowding, food insecurity, and lack of electricity al may contribute
to poor educational outcomes.17 Recurring conflict and fragility have also been shown to
negatively affect educational attainment, particularly by deepening existing inequalities in
education, reducing the average number of years of education, and lessening overal educational
attainment.18 Further complicating the operating environment is the Coronavirus Disease 2019
(COVID-19) pandemic, which has already affected global education access. According to the
United Nations, the pandemic has affected nearly 1.6 bil ion learners, with more than 99% of
students in low- and lower-middle-income countries affected.19
The Role of Congress: Funding and Policy
Congress first made education a distinctive policy objective of foreign assistance in 1973, when it
added sector-specific objectives to the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 (FAA, P.L. 87-195, as
amended). This effort was part of its “New Directions” policy, which sought to target assistance
on satisfying the basic human needs of the poor in developing countries. Section 105 of the FAA
seeks “to reduce il iteracy, to extend basic education, and to increase manpower training in skills
related to development.”
Today, Congress continues to shape education assistance largely through annual appropriations
and policymaking. The majority of funding for international education assistance is designated in
annual Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Programs (SFOPS) appropriations
measures. Congress has also implemented many policy measures related to international
education assistance through that legislation. Other policy related to international education
assistance has been enacted as amendments to the FAA.
Annual Appropriations
Congress supports U.S. foreign assistance for education activities primarily through the annual
SFOPS appropriation. For many decades, Congress has directed in legislative language that at

14 Ibid.
15 UNICEF, Generation 2030 Africa 2.0: Prioritizing investment in children to reap the demographic dividend , October
2017, p. 12.
16 See, for example, UNESCO, Global Education Monitoring Report 2020: Inclusion and education: All means all
(Paris: UNESCO, 2020).
17 Challenges drawn in part from Education Development Center, Inc. for USAID, Literacy, Language and Learning
Initiative (L3) National Fluency Assessm ent of Rwandan Schools Midline Report, January 2016, p. 67.
18 UNESCO Institute for Statistics, The Quantitative Impact of Conflict on Education, T echnical Paper No. 7, 2011.
19 United Nations, Policy Brief: Education during COVID-19 and beyond, August 2020.
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least a certain amount be spent for basic education purposes and, since FY2009, also for higher
education.
Appropriations for U.S. international education programs have grown considerably since FY2000
in current U.S. dollars (Figure 3). However, when adjusted for inflation, funding for international
education programs peaked in FY2010. The FY2021 appropriation is the highest in inflation-
adjusted terms since FY2011.
Figure 3. Education Assistance Appropriations, FY2000-FY2021

Source: Graphic created by CRS using Annual Foreign Operations Appropriations (FY2000-2007); Annual
Department of State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs Appropriations (FY2008-FY2021); Constant
Dol ar amounts calculated using GDP Price Index from the U.S. Bureau for Economic Analysis and Congressional
Budget Office, compiled by CRS Analyst D. Andrew Austin.
Notes: FY2020 and FY2021 Constant Dol ar amounts calculated using projected GDP Price Index for each year.
In both current (i.e., not adjusted for inflation) and constant dollars, Congress provided the largest
funding increases to international education funding between FY2000 and FY2010, with the
largest percentage increase in funding over the previous year in FY2008 (a 51% increase over the
FY2007 funding level in current dollars). Congress expressed a number of justifications and set
various conditions for education funding between FY2000 and FY2010. For example:
 In FY2002, Congress increased basic education funding for USAID by 46% over
the previous year to address “urgent” basic education activities. According to
Congress, “Widespread anti-American sentiment in predominately Muslim
countries has exposed a deficiency in basic education within countries that have
received large amounts of U.S. assistance through [Economic Support Fund
(ESF)] programs.” As such, Congress urged that USAID initiate “cooperative
efforts ... with ESF-recipient countries to develop and implement creative basic
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education programs that strengthen the capacity and accessibility of public
education systems.”20
 In FY2004, Congress increased basic education funding for USAID by 50% over
the previous year and required USAID to submit to Congress a strategy for “the
use of basic education funds in Africa, East Asia and the Pacific, the Near East,
South Asia, and the Western Hemisphere” that included country strategies,
USAID’s administrative and interagency coordination structure, and “actions
being taken to expand the administrative capacity of both USAID and the State
Department to deliver effective expanded basic education programs.”21
 In FY2008, Congress increased basic education funding for USAID by 51% over
the previous year. The appropriation included $190 mil ion for countries that had
an approved national education plan, as wel as “an increase above the budget
request for basic education programs in Ethiopia.” As noted above, the FY2008
bil also included the creation of “a Coordinator of United States Government
activities to provide basic education assistance in developing countries” within
the Department of State.22
Between FY2010 and FY2021, U.S. education assistance largely leveled off, hovering between
$1.00 and $1.13 bil ion annual y. In FY2021, Congress designated a combined $1.24 bil ion in
SFOPS appropriations for education programming, representing 2.8% of the total foreign
operations appropriation that year.23 This is an increase of 11% over FY2020 funding,
representing the largest year-on-year percentage increase since FY2010. The final appropriation
included $950 mil ion for basic education and $285 mil ion for higher education programs, and
included two designations within the education sector that were not included in previous fiscal
years:
 Of the $950 mil ion designated for basic education programs, $150 mil ion for
the education of girls in areas of conflict.
 In addition to $235 mil ion designated for broad higher education programs,
Congress specified $50 mil ion for higher education institutions in countries
“whose economies are adversely affected by political instability, conflict
(including in neighboring countries), or catastrophic manmade disasters, such as
the port explosion in Lebanon on August 4, 2020.”24
Annual obligations. Appropriations directives for education assistance establish a spending floor
(using “not less than” language), not a final funding level. Executive branch agencies have
consistently obligated more funds for education assistance than the appropriated minimum, with
the exception of FY2011 (Figure 4). On average, obligations for international education
assistance exceeded the designated appropriation by 38%. In the context of broader foreign

20 H.Rept. 107-345.
21 H.Rept. 108-401.
22 House Appropriations Committee Print (1/30/08) Book 2, Division J, available at https://www.govinfo.gov/content/
pkg/CPRT -110HPRT 39564/pdf/CPRT -110HPRT39564-DivisionJ.pdf.
23 T he total foreign operations funding level includes funds designated as Overseas Contingency Operations and
emergency funds designated for COVID-19 and Sudan-related assistance. For more on FY2021 SFOPS appropriations,
see CRS Report R46367, Departm ent of State, Foreign Operations, and Related Program s: FY2021 Budget and
Appropriations.
24 House Appropriations Committee Print (03/21) Book 2, Division K, p. 2117, available at https://www.congress.gov/
committee-print/117th-congress/house-committee-print/43750.
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assistance efforts, funding for international education assistance has slowly grown as a proportion
of overal foreign assistance; in FY2001, education assistance represented slightly under 1% of
total U.S. foreign assistance obligations. In FY2019, international education assistance funding
represented approximately 3% of annual U.S. foreign assistance obligations.25
Figure 4. Education Assistance Appropriations vs. Obligations, FY2001-FY2019

Source: Graphic created by CRS using Annual Foreign Operations Appropriations (FY2001-2007); Annual
Department of State, Foreign Operations and Related Programs Appropriations (FY2008-FY2019); USAID’s
Foreign Aid Explorer.
Notes: FY2019 is the most recent year for which comprehensive data are available; FY2000 data were not
included due to potential incompleteness.
Education Assistance Policy
Some policy measures related to U.S. education assistance have been enacted in annual SFOPS
measures. In the FY2008 SFOPS appropriation (P.L. 110-161), for example, Congress mandated
the establishment of a position within the State Department to oversee and coordinate al U.S.
basic education assistance and to provide a strategy for such assistance. The Basic Education
Coordinator was appointed in 2007 and served in that position for one year, after which no other
individual occupied the post. Although the FY2012 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 112-
74) shifted the post to USAID, the agency divided responsibilities for basic education between a
Senior Advisor for International Education appointed in March 2013 and other officials in
USAID’s former Bureau for Economic Growth, Education, and the Environment.
Separately, Congress has set policy for U.S. education assistance in standalone bil s, some of
which have amended the FAA. In 2017, Congress enacted the Reinforcing Education
Accountability in Development Act (READ Act, P.L. 115-56). The bil amended Section 105 of
the FAA to further define key concepts such as “basic education,” “communities of learning,” and
“sustainability” and to set U.S. policy and principles regarding international education programs.
The legislation also required the President to develop and submit to Congress a comprehensive

25 CRS calculations based on Foreign Aid Explorer data.
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U.S. strategy for international basic education and establish a Senior Coordinator of United States
International Basic Education Assistance within USAID.
In 2021, Congress enacted the Global Child Thrive Act of 2020 (P.L. 116-283, Div. A, Title XII).
The bil amended the FAA to support early childhood (i.e., children under eight years old)
development through a coordinated combination of health, protection, and education
interventions. The legislation aimed to not only spur new programming for early childhood
development but also connect existing programs related to these efforts. Basic education,
including early learning for children three years old and younger, features in the Global Child
Thrive Act as a critical component to “al ow a child to reach his or her full developmental
potential.”
Congress has considered numerous other bil s related to foreign education assistance. Recent
legislation has focused largely on three cross-cutting issues within the sector:
 Girls’ education. Some Members have proposed legislation that would
specifical y address girls’ educational attainment, either at the country or global
level. For example, the 116th Congress enacted the Malala Yousafzai Scholarship
Act (P.L. 116-338), which requires USAID to award at least 50% of scholarships
under its Merit and Needs-Based Scholarship Program (MNBSP) to women.26
Also in the 116th Congress, some Members introduced the Keeping Girls in
School Act (H.R. 2153/S. 1071), which asserted the importance of girls’
education and would have authorized USAID to finance activities to increase
girls’ access to a quality secondary action. (The House version of the bil passed
the chamber but did not pass the Senate.)
 COVID-19. The COVID-19 pandemic spurred interest among some Members
about how the disease might affect global educational attainment and U.S.
international education programs. For example, the Global Learning Loss
Assessment Act (H.R. 8220/S. 4548, and reintroduced in the 117th Congress as
H.R. 1500/S. 552), would require USAID to submit a report to Congress
detailing the impact of the pandemic on global basic education programs.
 Educational content. Some Members have shown particular interest in what is
being taught in U.S.-funded international education programs. For example, the
Peace and Tolerance in Palestinian Education Act (H.R. 2343, and reintroduced
in the 117th as H.R. 2374), asserts that educational materials used by the
Palestinian Authority and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for
Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA) in the West Bank and Gaza
“demonize Israel, encourage war, and teach children that Palestinian statehood
can be achieved through violence.”27 To address such concerns, the measure
would require the Secretary of State to submit to Congress (in addition to any

26 USAID’s Merit and Needs-Based Scholarship Program was established in partnership with the Higher Education
Commission of Pakistan and provides full-tuition scholarships and stipends “ for talented yet economically
disadvantaged Pakistani youth to earn a bachelor’s or master’s degree at any of 30 partner universities across Pakistan.”
USAID, Merit and Need Based Scholarship Program (MNBSP) , December 19, 2019, at https://www.usaid.gov/news-
information/fact-sheets/merit-and-need-based-scholarship-program-mnbsp.
27 For some background information on PA textbooks used in the West Bank and Gaza, see Georg Eckert Institute for
International T extbook Research, Report on Palestinian Textbooks, September 2019-June 2021. For background on
how UNRWA uses and adapts curricula from the PA and other host countries, see UNRWA, “ What We Do –
Education” and “ UNRWA Launches Innovative Centralized Digital Learning Platform for Half a Million Palestine
Refugee Students,” April 19, 2021.
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reports required in annual appropriations legislation) an annual report that
reviews materials and related curricula and assesses whether U.S. foreign
assistance is being used, either directly or indirectly, to support such materials
and curricula.28
U.S. Agencies Implementing Education Programs
Multiple U.S. agencies administer and implement international education programs. Al U.S.
basic education programming, regardless of implementing agency, is guided by the U.S.
Government Strategy on International Basic Education, a whole-of-government document with
two principal priorities: (1) improving learning outcomes and (2) expanding access to quality
basic education for al , particularly marginalized and vulnerable populations.29 Higher education
programming, which represents a smal er proportion of U.S. international education
programming, is often guided by individual agency guidance and priorities.
In FY2019 (the most recent year for which data are available for al agencies), agencies
implementing international education programs included USAID; Peace Corps; the Mil ennium
Chal enge Corporation (MCC); the Departments of State, the Interior, and the Army; the U.S.
African Development Foundation; and the Inter-American Foundation.30 Together, USAID, Peace
Corps, and MCC were responsible for 96% of al education assistance funding (Figure 5).

28 Existing annual appropriations legislation (see Section 7048(d)(5) of P.L. 116-260) requires a written report from the
Secretary of State to the Committees on Appropriations, before the obligation of funds to UNRWA, on whether
UNRWA is “taking steps to ensure the content of all educational materials currently taught in UNRWA-administered
schools and summer camps is consistent with the values of human rights, dignity, and tolerance and does not induce
incitement.”
29 U.S. Government Strategy on International Basic Education, Fiscal Years 2019 -2023, p. 4.
30 Some agencies support education indirectly. By providing food aid to school children, the Department of
Agriculture’s McGovern-Dole International Food for Education and Child Nutrition program directly addresses
nutritional needs of children while at the same time indirectly encouraging school attendanc e. Such indirect assistance
is not counted in total education funding data.
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Figure 5. Agencies Implementing Education Assistance, FY2019
(percentage of obligations by implementing agency)

Source: Graphic created by CRS using Foreign Aid Explorer Data; DAC Category = Education.
Notes: USAID = U.S. Agency for International Development; MCC = Mil ennium Chal enge Corporation; IAF =
Inter-American Foundation; USADF = U.S.-African Development Foundation; DOI = Department of the Interior.
USAID
USAID plays the largest role in U.S. government education assistance programs.31 The agency’s
2018 Education Policy, which applies to education programming at al levels (from preprimary
through higher education), defines four priorities for education programming:
Children and youth, particularly the most marginalized and vulnerable , have increased
access to quality education that is safe, relevant, and promotes social well-being.
Children and youth gain literacy, numeracy, and social-emotional skills that are
foundational to future learning and success.
Youth gain the skills they need to lead productive lives, gain employment, and positively
contribute to society.
Higher education institutions have the capacity to be central actors in development by
conducting and applying research, delivering quality education, and engaging with
communities.32
USAID’s Center for Education, within the new Bureau for Development, Democracy and
Innovation (DDI), leads the agency’s education work and is meant to serve as a resource to

31 For a brief background on USAID, see CRS In Focus IF10261, U.S. Agency for International Development: An
Overview.
32 USAID Education Policy, p. 8.
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overseas missions in need of education-related technical assistance.33 In 2020, in an effort to
support the agency’s Education Policy, the Center for Education issued USAID Education Policy:
Program Cycle Implementation and Operational Guidance, which seeks to inform implementing
partners about education assistance best practices and what is expected of them at each level of
program planning and execution.34 The center also runs EducationLinks, a web portal aimed at
helping education practitioners “learn and share knowledge to create and implement successful,
effective education and skil s development programs.”35 In 2020, for example, the Center for
Education, using the EducationLinks platform, ran a six-month Global Education Learning Series
that covered various topics, including education interventions in the context of COVID-19,
incorporating the private sector in education programming, and the importance of social and
emotional learning in school curricula, among others.36
According to USAID, the agency reached more than 32 mil ion children and youth in 51
countries with education interventions in FY2019.37 For il ustrative examples of USAID
education programs, see “Selected Types of Education Activities” below.
Peace Corps
The Peace Corps’s education sector focuses on three project areas: (1) Teaching English as a
Foreign Language (TEFL), (2) literacy, and (3) Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (STEM). It also seeks to improve the community and school learning environment
by establishing libraries, managing tutoring and/or mentorship programs, developing
extracurricular activities, and incorporating gender- and disability-equitable teaching practices.38
In FY2019, 84% of Peace Corps posts had education components, and 44% (2,949) of Peace
Corps Volunteers were Education Volunteers.39 As with other sectors, Education Volunteers
general y live and work in rural, underserved, or marginalized communities that may be less
likely to receive trained teachers and school resources. Al volunteers work with local
counterparts; volunteer assignments often include teacher training.
Millennium Challenge Corporation
MCC seeks to address partner countries’ constraints to economic growth through projects
developed in coordination with host governments.40 In the education sector, MCC programs
largely address education infrastructure as wel as policy reforms and school operating
environments.41 For example, programs may rehabilitate educational facilities, establish or

33 DDI was established as part of former Administrator Mark Green’s Transformation initiative. For a brief overview of
Transform ation, see the relevant section in CRS Report R46656, Selected Trum p Adm inistration Foreign Aid
Priorities: A Wrap-Up.
34 USAID, USAID Education Policy: Program Cycle Implementation and Operational Guidance , April 2020.
35 For more on EducationLinks, see https://www.edu-links.org/.
36 For more on the Global Education Learning Series, including to access learning modules and view recorded webinar
sessions, see https://www.edu-links.org/LearningSeries.
37 According to https://www.usaid.gov/education, accessed April 12, 2021.
38 Peace Corps, The Peace Corps’ Congressional Budget Justification Fiscal Year 2021 , pp. 61-62.
39 Ibid.
40 For more on MCC, see CRS Report RL32427, Millennium Challenge Corporation: Overview and Issues, by Nick M.
Brown.
41 U.S. Government Strategy on International Basic Education, Fiscal Years 2019 -2023, pp. 74-75.
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strengthen schools’ data management systems, or help local partners introduce new laws
pertaining to education systems.
In FY2019, 13% of MCC compact funding was allocated to the Health, Education, and
Community Services sector.42 As of March 2020, MCC had reported over 291,000 student
participants in its programs, nearly 63,000 graduates from MCC-supported education activities,
and 844 completed education facilities since the agency’s establishment in 2004. Two current
MCC Compacts, with Côte D’Ivoire and Morocco, have education sector components.43 Others in
development may include education components, depending on the partner countries’ identified
constraints to economic growth.
Other Agencies
Other U.S. government agencies also contribute to international education foreign assistance.
Some directly contribute through program administration (as il ustrated in Figure 5), such as the
Department of State’s administration of some education assistance for refugees and displaced
persons through the Department’s Bureau of Population, Refugees and Migration. However, other
agencies administer activities that are closely linked to education outcomes but are not
categorized as education activities in foreign assistance reporting. For example, the Department
of Labor’s Bureau of International Labor Affairs works to combat child labor and forced labor
abroad and reestablish pipelines for children to attend school.44 The Department of Agriculture’s
Foreign Agricultural Service administers the McGovern-Dole Food for Education and Child
Nutrition Program, which provides school meals and maternal and child nutrition projects with
the aim of both reducing hunger and improving literacy.45 As these programs are not categorized
as education in foreign assistance reporting, their funding is not counted toward basic or higher
education al ocations and their overal budgetary impact is chal enging to capture.
Selected Types of Education Activities
The U.S. government implements different types of education assistance activities, including
programs focused on access, enrollment, and retention; curriculum development; teacher support;
textbook and learning material development and distribution; workforce development; education
management and policy; and school construction. Most education projects combine two or more
of these elements to address a particular set of educational concerns in a developing country.
This section provides detail on each type of assistance activity, along with an il ustrative example
project administered by one of the U.S. agencies active in the education sector. The examples
have been selected from different countries to demonstrate the broad geographic scope of
activities, which is also il ustrated in Figure 6.

42 MCC, Congressional Budget Justification, FY2021, pp. 35-36.
43 As of June 4, 2021.
44 For more, see https://www.dol.gov/agencies/ilab.
45 For more, see https://www.fas.usda.gov/programs/mcgovern-dole-food-education-program.
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Figure 6. FY2019 Regional Distribution of Education Assistance
(percentage of obligations)

Source: Graphic created by CRS using Foreign Aid Explorer Data.
Notes: World = assistance that may span regions or is not attributed to a specific region.
Access, Enrollment, and Retention
As explained above (see “The Global Education Landscape” section), access, enrollment, and
retention remain persistent chal enges to international education outcomes. The COVID-19
pandemic has further complicated these chal enges, leading many learners to shift to distance
learning and others to lose access to education entirely—with a proportion of those expected to
never return to school. Access to education, in particular, features prominently in the U.S.
Government Strategy on International Basic Education, as wel as in individual agency strategies
and policies.
Development interventions to improve access to education and enrollment and retention levels
depend on the country context. In some countries experiencing conflict, for example, consistent
access to education may require additional investments in protection for children and youth
attending school. This may be particularly applicable in low- and lower-middle-income countries.
In low-income contexts, high school fees and other costs may prevent children from attending
school. In such resource-constrained environments, parents may feel as though they must choose
which of their children may attend school (if any), and often prioritize boys’ learning over that of
girls.46 As children advance in school and reach working and, in some countries, marital age,
households may choose to send their children to work to contribute income to the household
instead of attend school.
One example of a project that seeks to improve access to education, enrollment, and retention is
USAID’s Accelerating Access and Learning (ACCELERE!1) in the Democratic Republic of
Congo (DRC). The program, funded in partnership with the United Kingdom aid agency and

46 Prioritizing boys’ education over girls’ may also relate to a country’s social or cultural norm s. However, it is
challenging to quantitatively measure the potential effect of such norms on girls’ education.
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implemented by Chemonics International, was launched in 2015 to reach 450,000 out-of-school
children and improve student retention, among other goals.47 The project in its planning identified
a number of barriers to entry for DRC students, including expensive school fees, unsafe schools
(particularly high levels of violence against girls), and large class sizes. 48 To address these
barriers, the ACCELERE!1 project included a Back-to-School Campaign (in partnership with
UNICEF) to encourage school attendance, trainings for school administrators and teachers on
how to foster safe school environments, establishing Gender and Violence Monitoring
Committees in schools, and launching a grants program to help households pay school fees,
among others.49
Curriculum Development
Curriculum development, along with teacher support and the development and distribution of
textbooks and other learning materials (see the “Textbooks and Learning Materials Development
and Distribution” section), aims to address the concern that even when children are in school,
they may not be learning.50 Curriculum development also often coincides with education
management and policy development (see the “Education Management and Policy Reform”
section), as curricula may be structured to meet national y established education goals.
Curriculum development activities may include technical assistance at the national or community
level, as wel as classroom and lesson planning with teachers, among other activities.
One example of a USAID-run project that included curriculum development was Afghan
Children Read.51 The project, which ran from FY2016 to FY2021, was developed in partnership
with the Afghan Ministry of Education (MoE) to improve reading and writing outcomes for
primary school children. Among other interventions, such as teacher training and community
mobilization, the project developed an early grade reading (EGR) curriculum to support children
in grades 1-3. The project developed a standardized syllabus to help guide teachers through
instruction, provided translated materials to ensure students could learn in Pashto and Dari (the
country’s two official languages), and created mechanisms such as assessments and review
lessons to help teachers track students’ progress on a weekly basis. USAID and the MoE also
sought ways to align the EGR curriculum with international standards for education by
incorporating lessons learned from research conducted on reading and reading competencies in
other countries.52
Teacher Support
Teacher support is also an international y recognized priority in the education sector; the
Education 2030 Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action states that signatories wil
“ensure that teachers and educators are empowered, adequately recruited, wel -trained,

47 USAID, Education, accessed April 13, 2021 at https://www.usaid.gov/democratic-republic-congo/education.
48 Chemonics International Inc. and SIL LEAD Inc., Report on Operations Research for ACCELERE! IL Rethinking
the Partnership Model – A way to alleviate the school fee burden in DRC, February 2018, pp. 8-9.
49 USAID/Education Office, Improving Reading, Access, and Accountability in the DRC (ACCELERE!) Activity 1,
FY19 Annual Work Plan October 2018 -Septem ber 2019, December 3, 2018.
50 Nicholas Burnett, “International Education Policies, Issues, and Challenges,” in Education, Learning, Training:
Critical Issues for Developm ent, ed. Gilles Carbonnier, Michael Carton, Kenneth King (Brill, 2014), p. 30.
51 Creative Associates International, Inc., Afghan Children Read, Final Report, USAID, Kabul, Afghanistan, March 5,
2021.
52 Ibid.
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professional y qualified, motivated and supported.”53 Teacher support activities may include co-
teaching to build classroom skil s, providing social and emotional support for teachers through
counseling and group workshops, offering pay incentives to reduce teacher absenteeism, and
funding professional development and other training opportunities.
Many Peace Corps Volunteers, for example, work to build capacity among local educators. In
Liberia, instead of being classroom-based, Peace Corps Response Volunteers54 work with teachers
outside the classroom to help teachers develop and hone various teaching skil s (often referred to
as a training of trainers approach).55 One such volunteer worked with Liberian science teachers to
incorporate more hands-on activities in the classroom through creating experiments that used
local supplies (e.g., empty bottles and cans, baking soda packets, rubber sandals, toothpicks).56 In
Albania, volunteers focus education efforts on helping English teachers and instructors “improve
their English language proficiency, teaching methods and resource development.”57
Textbooks and Learning Materials Development and Distribution
In many developing countries, the cost of textbooks and other learning materials is high relative
to local incomes, and the process for ordering and distributing books within countries and school
systems may be inefficient or vulnerable to corruption. Even when books reach the classroom,
they may be not be appropriate for the student population (e.g., not in the native language or at an
unsuitable skil level). Activities to develop, print, and distribute textbooks and other learning
materials range from translation efforts to ensure titles are in learners’ native languages to
developing supply chains for secure, undamaged book deliveries.
One example of an effort to address chal enges in textbook and learning materials development
and distribution is USAID’s Global Book Al iance. The al iance was launched in 2016 with other
international donors, including the United Kingdom, Norway, and the World Bank, to address the
“global book gap,” or the “lack of level-appropriate books in languages children use and
understand.”58 The al iance has grown to include other international donors, nongovernmental
organizations, and private sector partners. It has five primary initiatives:
 The Book Chain, which seeks to identify and resolve current obstacles in the
book supply chain related to planning, development, publishing, distribution, and
eventual use of books.
 Global Digital Library, an open-source library accessible to schools, donor
agencies, implementing partners, publishers, distributors, parents, and children.
 Results for All Children (REACH) Trust Fund, a “results-based financing”
grant program aimed at addressing deficiencies in the book chain.
 Begin with Books Prize, a competition in partnership with USAID’s All
Children Reading: A Grand Challenge for Development that incentivizes
innovators to improve accessibility for those learning in underserved spoken and

53 UNESCO, Education 2030 Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the Implementation of Sustainable
Developm ent Goal 4 , ED-2016/WS/28, Incheon, Republic of Korea, May 21, 2015, p. 8.
54 Unlike traditional two-year volunteers, Peace Corps Response Volunteer positions range from 3-12 month
placements. Positions are identified based on a host country’s articulated needs.
55 Peace Corps, Projects in Liberia, accessed April 14, 2021 at https://www.peacecorps.gov/liberia/projects/.
56 Kristen Grauer-Gray, Teaching teachers amplifies impact, Peace Corps, April 9, 2021.
57 Peace Corps, Projects in Albania, accessed April 14, 2021 at https://www.peacecorps.gov/albania/projects/.
58 Global Book Alliance, The Book Gap, accessed April 14, 2021 at https://www.globalbookalliance.org/the-book-gap.
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signed languages. Resources developed through Begin with Books Prizes are
uploaded to the Global Digital Library to ensure broad distribution.
 Support for Publishers, or investments in local partners in an effort to ensure an
effective supply of books, including those in neglected languages. By working
closely with local partners, the Global Book Al iance aims to spur the creation of
cultural y appropriate titles and address current obstacles to local publishing.59
Workforce Development
Some education programs seek to prepare graduates to enter the workforce and contribute
economical y to their households and communities.60 While workforce development efforts have
largely focused on helping students develop technical skil s, many programs today also integrate
soft skil s (e.g., self-confidence, impulse control, critical thinking, respect for others). USAID
notes that these integrated programs can equip young people with a set of skil s that can be
applied across a number of sectors and job types.61
One such example is found within MCC’s Côte d’Ivoire compact, which entered into force on
August 5, 2019. The compact identified “low levels of basic and technical and vocational skil s”
as one of four constraints to economic growth in the country and established the Skil s for
Employability and Productivity Project to address that constraint.62 Among other interventions,
such as teacher support and investment in school construction, the project includes the Technical
and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) Activity. The TVET Activity relies on training
centers that are developed in partnership with private sector actors to help participants develop
marketable skil s, such as those related to STEM. To ensure the TVET Activity is achieving its
intended results, the compact includes systems to track graduates’ job placements as wel as
training center accreditations to ensure consistent quality in education.
Education Management and Policy Reform
Educational systems are usual y managed by national ministries of education or regional
equivalents; accordingly, U.S. assistance may seek to help national and/or subnational
governments to formulate education policies and strategies and build institutional capacity for
effective implementation.
The USAID-funded Pakistan Reading Project has a number of interventions aiming to improve
management of the country’s educational system.63 Primarily, these interventions focus on setting
learning benchmarks and performance standards at the country- and provincial-levels, developing
new (or supporting preexisting) assessment methods, and strengthening teacher support and
accreditation systems. For example, one arm of the project aims to help provinces develop and

59 Information on all lines of effort accessed April 14, 2021 at https://www.globalbookalliance.org/.
60 Workforce development programs may span sectors (e.g., private sector development and economic growth). T his
report approaches workforce development from the education perspective but this is but one approach to broader
workforce development efforts in U.S. foreign assistance.
61 USAID, Exploring the Development of Cross-Sectoral Skills for Youth: Reflections from the Cross-Sectoral Skills
Com m unity of Practice, March 2020.
62 MCC, Millennium Challenge Compact between the United States acting through the Millennium Challenge
Corporation and the Republic of Cote d'Ivoire acting through the Ministry of Econom y and Finances , November 7,
2017, Annex I.
63 USAID, USAID-funded Pakistan Reading Project, accessed April 15, 2021 at https://web.archive.org/web/
20200911001552/https://www.pakreading.org.pk/en/Reading%20Assessment%20Systems.
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implement reading improvement strategies to track local reading outcomes. Another seeks to train
local policymakers and educators to utilize the National Education Assessment and Provincial
Education Assessment Systems. These early grade reading assessments have been managed by
USAID implementing partners, but the project aims to build local capacity in assessment
management and data analysis so that policymakers and educators may use assessment results to
inform teacher trainings, measure student progress, and improve reading outcomes without
USAID’s assistance.
School Construction
School construction has been a component of U.S. education assistance for decades, supported by
the notion that investment in school construction increases student enrollment and achievement.64
The long history of school construction has also involved agencies outside the traditional foreign
assistance providers, such as the Department of Defense (DOD).65 Recent discussions
surrounding school construction and/or rehabilitation projects have incorporated issues related to
accessibility and inclusion. For example, the SDGs include “build[ing] and upgrad[ing] education
facilities that are child, disability and gender sensitive and provid[ing] safe, non-violent, inclusive
and effective learning environments for al .”66
USAID’s school construction project in Nepal helped rebuild facilities after a 2015 earthquake,
with a particular focus on improving access for disabled learners. According to the agency, in the
immediate aftermath of the earthquake, USAID helped build 1,045 temporary learning centers for
more than 93,000 students.67 In 2017, USAID launched the Nepal Community Reconstruction
Program, which included investment in disability-accessible reconstruction. In FY2019, the
agency reported that it supported the Asian Development Bank in reconstructing 15 schools in
earthquake-affected areas and provided 29 additional earthquake-affected schools with disability-
accessible reconstruction support.68
Education Activities as Means to Further Other Development Goals
Education activities, such as curriculum development and learning materials distribution, are not used only to
achieve education outcomes; such activities may be used in a range of non-education sector projects to further
other development goals. USAID, for example, uses education activities in the agriculture, food security, and
health sectors, among many others. Often these activities are intended to achieve social and/or behavior change.
For instance, a project may incorporate into a school’s curriculum lessons on handwashing and latrine use to help

64 For example, a USAID-proposed school construction program in Portugal in 1976 stated that “the construction
program ... will enable a greater number of school-age children to have access to quality education and will enable the
communities in which the schools are located to grow both socially and economically.” Department of State Agency
for International Development, Proposal and Recom mendations for the Review of the Developm ent Loan Com m ittee,
Portugal - School Construction, AID-DLC/P-2160, May 18, 1976, p. 24.
A 1983 USAID school construction project in Oman cited similar justifications, noting that the construction of new
schools would meet the increased demand for education in the country and would help further the country’s rapid
progress in the education sector. T his was insinuated as particularly important as Oman offered English as a second
language starting in the fourth grade, which was “the earliest level of introducin g English within the Arab World.”
USAID, Om an School Construction Project, 272-0103 Project Paper, July 13, 1983, pp. 2 -7.
65 For example, Sgt. Ian Leones, U.S. Marines complete school projects in Honduras, Marine Corps Forces South,
October 16, 2017, at https://www.southcom.mil/MEDIA/NEWS-ART ICLES/Article/1343690/us-marines-complete-
school-projects-in-honduras/.
66 SDG 4.a at https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal4.
67 USAID, Nepal Fact Sheet Education Program , 2017.
68 USAID, Disability-Inclusive Programming 2019 Snapshot of USAID Activities in Education , January 2021.
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eradicate open defecation and adopt stronger hygiene practices in a community.69 Another project may seek to
address child marriage and adolescent pregnancy through school-based interventions that address the societal
norms that drive child marriage and teach girls about the health benefits of delaying the first pregnancy,70 while a
third project may organize school-based cleanups and establish student environmental committees to reduce the
spread of disease.71
In instances such as the examples above, a project is not considered to be in the education sector and its funding
is not counted toward basic education or higher education al ocations. It is therefore chal enging to quantify how
many non-education sector projects might include education interventions and how budgetary and other
resources might be used to administer and support such activities.
Issues for Congress
Education sector foreign assistance programming has received broad bipartisan congressional
support, as evidenced by consistent funding for such programs in annual appropriations measures
during successive Congresses. The following issues related to oversight, funding, and project
implementation may be of particular interest to some Members of Congress as they consider
education assistance policies and appropriations.
Congressional Oversight of Education Sector Programming
As with other foreign assistance sectors, Members of Congress remain interested in ensuring that
education sector programming is achieving intended development goals, and Congress has set a
number of reporting requirements for education assistance. Assessing the sector as a whole may
raise difficulties, however, as none of these reports offers a comprehensive view of al U.S.
education programming.
At a broad level, agencies that administer U.S. foreign assistance in the education sector are
required to produce the following two overarching reports:
 Annual Report on the Implementation of the U.S. Government Strategy on
International Basic Education: Required by the READ Act (P.L. 115-56) 180
days after the end of each fiscal year of the strategy (currently through FY2023).
 Annual Report on the Implementation of the Global Child Thrive Act Strategy:
Required by the Global Child Thrive Act (P.L. 116-283) to be incorporated into
the annual report required under section 5 of the Assistance for Orphans and
Other Vulnerable Children in Developing Countries Act of 2005 (22 U.S.C.
§2152g).
Notably, neither report captures comprehensive information about higher education
programming—which, while constituting a smal er share of U.S. education programming relative
to basic education activities, has been a congressional y directed component of U.S. education
assistance since FY2009. Higher education constitutes an average of 21% of annual U.S.
education assistance appropriations.
Separate from the above annual reports, annual appropriations measures often include provisions
that outline consultation and/or reporting requirements that pertain to specific aspects of

69 See, for example, USAID, Initiative for Hygiene, Sanitation, and Nutrition (IHSAN) Afghanistan – Project Final
Report, August 11, 2020.
70 See, for example, USAID, The NGO Health Service Delivery Project 2012-2018 Final Report, May 2018.
71 See, for example, USAID, Zika Community Response Project (ZICORE) Final Activity Report USAID Zika Program,
Septem ber 30, 2016 to Septem ber 29, 2019 , March 5, 2020.
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education sector programming. The final FY2021 appropriation (P.L. 116-260, Div. K), for
example, included a number of consultation and reporting requirements in the education sector:
 The act provides not less than $35 mil ion for new and ongoing partnerships
between U.S. higher education institutions and those in developing countries and
requires that the USAID Administrator consult with the appropriations
committees on the proposed uses of funds for such partnerships within 45 days of
the bil ’s enactment.
 The bil directs the establishment of an endowment for higher education
institutions in Afghanistan and directs the USAID Administer to produce an
annual report on the endowment’s expenditure of funds. The Joint Explanatory
Statement (JES) also directs that the Administrator consult with the
Appropriations Committees on the endowment’s establishment.
 The JES directs the USAID Administrator to consult with the appropriations
committees on basic education programs for South Sudan within 90 days of
enactment.
 The JES directs the USAID Administrator to consult with the appropriations
committees on contributions to the Global Partnership for Education and
Education Cannot Wait to “ensure adequate monitoring, evaluation,
effectiveness, and sustainability of programs.”
Through regular notification requirements outlined in annual appropriations, Congress also can
gain insight into education programing at the project level. Per the requirements, administering
agencies must notify the Appropriations and Foreign Affairs/Relations Committees 15 days prior
to obligating funds for “programs, projects, activities, type[s] of materiel assistance, countries, or
other operations not justified or in excess of the amount justified.”72 This notification structure
offers Congress the opportunity to review and shape particular decisions in the sector as
administering agencies consider potential projects. After obligation, Members of Congress and
their staff are able to access project-specific funding levels using foreignassistance.gov or
USAID’s Foreign Aid Explorer, and project reports through individual agencies (USAID, for
example, maintains the Development Experience Clearinghouse [DEC] as a repository for project
documents). Congress may also request audits and investigations from the Government
Accountability Office and respective agency Inspectors General.
Congress receives various reports from the broad strategy level down to project-level obligations.
However, while USAID’s Education Policy includes higher education, there is no comprehensive
report on higher education programming, nor one report that captures the entirety of education
sector programming, as exists in some foreign assistance sectors.73 Congress may consider
whether or not the current reporting and notification structure meets its oversight needs and what
changes, if any, may be necessary.

72 Congress receives some sector-specific information in annual Congressional Budget Justifications (CBJ) an d
country-specific allocations information in annual 653(a) reports (for more on the 653(a) report, see CRS In Focus
IF11515, U.S. Foreign Assistance: Budget Developm ent and Execution , by Nick M. Brown). Congressional
notifications may therefore reference justification provided in the CBJ or allocations detailed in the 653(a) report.
73 For example, USAID produces an annual report on Biodiversity Conservation and Forestry Programs Results and
Funding. As another example, Congress receives two annual reports that together cover all U.S. -provided international
food assistance: the International Food Assistance Report (IFAR) and the Emergency Food Security Program report.
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Foreign Assistance and the Education Sector: Programs and Priorities

Historical Focus on Basic Education
Congress may consider how it balances basic education and higher education priorities in both
authorizing legislation and annual appropriations. The majority of recent legislation focused on
the foreign assistance education sector has centered on basic education, which has accounted for
83% of appropriated funds for U.S. education sector assistance since FY2000 (Figure 7).
Development practitioners have long debated
the merits to investing in basic versus higher
Figure 7. Total Basic Education and Higher
education. One regularly cited argument from
Education Appropriations,
the 1980s, for example, was that in a majority
FY2000-FY2021
of development contexts, basic education
offered a greater return on investment when
compared with higher education.74 In
countries with low primary school
enrollments, the analysts argued, “expanding
primary education or possibly raising its
quality would yield the highest social
payoff.”75 Based on that analysis, some
experts recommended real ocating
government spending from higher education
to basic education. The focus on basic
education continued into the 21st century, with
universal primary education comprising one
of eight goals under the U.N. MDGs.76

Others have increasingly advocated for
Source: Graphic created by CRS using Annual
Foreign Operations Appropriations (FY2000-FY2007);
investment in higher education. In 1998, the
Annual Department of State, Foreign Operations and
United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Related Programs Appropriations (FY2008-FY2021).
Cultural Organization (UNESCO) convened
the first World Conference on Higher Education, which stated that “the solution of the problems
faced on the eve of the twenty-first century wil be determined by the vision of the future society
and by the role that is assigned to education in general and to higher education in particular.”77
The conference also set a Framework for Priority Action for Change and Development in Higher
Education, which emphasized equitable access to higher education, ensuring linkages between
primary, secondary, and higher education; international cooperation among higher education
institutions; and incorporating new technologies, among others. Today, the World Bank argues
that the benefits to investing in higher education include “higher employment levels (lower levels
of underemployment), higher wages, greater social stability, increased civil engagement, better
health outcomes, and more.” It further argues that “brain drain and talent loss,” as wel as
“limitation to economic growth due to low levels of skil s in the workforce,” may be a result of
underinvestment in higher education systems.78

74 George Psacharopoulos et al., Financing Education in Developing Countries: An Exploration of Policy Options,
World Bank, Washington, DC, July 1986.
75 Ibid., p. 8.
76 For more on the Millennium Development Goals, see https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/education.shtml.
77 UNESCO, UNESCO, World Conference on Higher Education: Higher Education in the Twenty-first Century Vision
and Action, Volume 1: Final Report, Paris, October 9, 1998.
78 World Bank, Higher Education, March 10, 2021, at https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/tertiaryeducation.
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Congress has increased investment in higher education, more than doubling the amount
appropriated for higher education assistance between FY2009 and FY2021. During that same
period the investment in basic education assistance rose by 21%. However, the amount of funding
for basic education continues to dwarf that of higher education: in FY2021, Congress
appropriated $950 mil ion for basic education and $285 mil ion for higher education. Congress
may consider whether this balance of resources is sufficient to address its priorities and
developing countries’ needs, or if the levels should be reexamined in future appropriations
cycles.79
Technology and Innovation in Education Assistance
Some Members of Congress have shown interest in the types of interventions employed in the
education sector, with some arguing for greater use of technology and innovation. As Congress
considers legislation on the sector and conducts related oversight, Members may seek more
information on where new technology and innovations have been used in the sector; how, if at al ,
they have affected project outcomes; and whether or not they may have application in additional
country or regional contexts.
The adoption of new technologies and innovations is widely supported by the development
community, with some development experts having criticized the education sector for “largely
doing things the way they have always been done, with insufficient innovation and adaptation to
modern economies and societies.”80 However, some practitioners warn that technology and
innovation cannot be treated as a silver bullet or employed without support. Rather, they argue
that new interventions should be used judiciously to solve specific “micro-problems” within the
sector and that any technology should be tested prior to deployment and then be accompanied by
training, monitoring, and maintenance as needed.81 Others warn that relying on new technologies
such as those employed for distance learning may inadvertently increase inequality in educational
achievement, as the poorest of the poor may not have access to reliable (or any) electricity,
internet, learning materials, and learning support.82 As observed during the COVID-19 pandemic,
complete reliance on distance learning, even for those with complete access to reliable resources,
can result in poorer outcomes as both students and teachers benefit greatly from in-person
interaction.83
The incorporation of new technology and innovation into the education sector has been of
particular interest in the COVID-19 pandemic context. As discussed earlier, the COVID-19
pandemic has resulted in significant setbacks in the education sector. However, some analysts
argue that project adaptations made in response to the pandemic may offer opportunities for
implementing partners to incorporate lessons learned into future programming. There are some
indications that the expanded distance learning interventions required in the pandemic may

79 For example, some countries that deliver higher education may not need U.S. funds to expand such services, while
other countries may need to further build basic and secondary education achievement before setting sights on higher
education outcomes. USAID maintains that foreign assistance must be context specific; some may argue that higher
education interventions do not suit all country contexts.
80 See, for example, Nicholas Burnett, “International Education Policies, Issues, and Challenges,” p. 31.
81 See, for example, David K. Evans, Education Technology for Effective Teachers, Center for Global Development,
T eachers T hematic Group, World Bank, February 2021, February 16, 2021.
82 See, for example, UNICEF, “Unequal access to remote schooling amid COVID-19 threatens to deepen global
learning crisis,” press release, June 4, 2020.
83 T im Walker, How ‘Zoom Fatigue’ Impacts Communication With Students, National Education Association, October
16, 2020.
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continue to see broad application in the post-pandemic context: USAID, for example, has
launched an Audio and Radio Instruction Online Library84 for implementing partners and has
indicated that it is currently working on a Toolkit for Designing and Planning a Distance Learning
Strategy that is meant to inform long-term distance learning projects.85

Author Information

Emily M. Morgenstern

Analyst in Foreign Assistance and Foreign Policy

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and
under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should n ot be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
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copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

84 For more, see https://www.edu-links.org/distance-learning-interactive-audio-and-radio-online-library.
85 USAID, A Roadmap for Measuring Distance Learning: A Review of Evidence and Emerging Practices, January
2021, p. v.
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