Burma: Background and Issues for Congress

Burma: Background and Issues for Congress

Burma: Background and Issues for Congress

Updated January 7, 2026 (IF12331)

Overview

Burma (also known as Myanmar) is a multi-ethnic Southeast Asian nation of 57.5 million that has been under some degree of military rule since 1962 and under an authoritarian military junta since a February 2021 coup d'état. The coup ended a decade-long period of partial democratization and ushered in a broad nationwide conflict that has killed tens of thousands of people. After nearly five years of conflict and a devastating March 2025 earthquake, the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN OCHA), estimates that 3.6 million people—6% of the country's population—have been displaced since the coup.

The military currently is fighting numerous ethnic armed organizations (EAOs) as well as anti-junta militias across much of the country. Some anti-junta groups have gained control over large regions in Burma. Criminal activity in Burma has flourished. Large cyber-scam operations, many reportedly run by international criminal enterprises, have grown in regions bordering the People's Republic of China (PRC, or China) and Thailand. Human trafficking and illegal trafficking in narcotics, wildlife, and sanctioned materials such as gemstones, continues.

Against this backdrop, the junta is conducting a month-long set of parliamentary elections which started in December and are to conclude January 25, 2026. Few overseas observers believe the polls will be free and fair – voting won't take place in large parts of the country that remain under opposition control or in conflict. Some analysts believe military leaders seek a degree of international legitimacy, if they can seat a new government.

Congress has taken considerable interest in Burma since the emergence of the pro-democracy movement in the late 1980s. In the 117th Congress, the James M. Inhofe National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2023 (FY2023 NDAA; P.L. 117-263) included provisions related to the 2021 coup that had been part of the proposed Burma Unified through Rigorous Military Accountability Act (BURMA Act; H.R. 5497/S. 2937). The FY2023 NDAA stated that it is U.S. policy to "support the people of Burma in their struggle for democracy, freedom, human rights, and justice" and authorized additional sanctions and nonlethal, technical assistance to resistance groups, among other provisions. Congress also has appropriated funds for humanitarian assistance and democracy and human rights promotion in Burma, although many of these programs have been impacted by the Trump Administration's cuts to foreign assistance in 2025.

In the 119th Congress, the Brave BURMA Act (H.R. 3190), if adopted, would call on the Administration to name a special coordinator or special representative for Burma policy, among other actions. The Burma GAP Act (H.R. 4140) would call on the Secretary of State and special coordinator to support humanitarian relief for the country's Rohingya minority, seek accountability for crimes against humanity committed against them, and require a report on the status of the Rohingya and U.S. efforts to address their situation. (See "Plight of the Rohingya," below.)

Historical Background

Burma gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1948. In its early years, some political leaders, including Nobel Laureate Aung San Suu Kyi's father, Aung San, sought to develop some form of federalism. A 1962 coup installed a military junta that rejected autonomy for ethnic minority areas, initiating a decades-long period of military rule and ethnic conflict. In 1990, the junta ignored the results of a general election won by Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) and detained her under house arrest.

Beginning in 2010, the junta allowed a partial transition toward a more democratic system, in which a hybrid civilian-military government led the country following parliamentary elections in 2010 and 2015. The government undertook some political and economic reforms and released thousands of political prisoners, while the military retained control of the country's security ministries and key economic assets. During this period, the military continued to commit grievous human rights abuses, particularly against the Rohingya minority.

Figure 1. Burma

Source: Figure created by CRS. Map boundaries from U.S. Department of State. Data from CIA World Factbook (2025).

The NLD won an overwhelming majority of parliamentary seats in November 2020 elections. Claiming the results were fraudulent, the military launched a coup the day before new members were set to be sworn in and installed a junta, known as the State Administrative Council (SAC), led by military commander Min Aung Hlaing. The junta arrested Aung San Suu Kyi and many other NLD leaders. Aung San Suu Kyi, 80, remains in prison. NLD members living in exile have created a shadow government called the National Unity Government (NUG) and seek diplomatic recognition.

Conflict Post-2021

Resistance to the coup gave rise to conflict that, combined with long-standing ethnic minority resistance to central rule, has spread across much of Burma. Resistance forces, many made up of EAOs that already controlled large territories, have gained control over additional areas, particularly since 2023. The military has used lethal force against peaceful protestors, waged offensives against EAO militias, and allegedly committed a wide range of human rights violations, including targeted killings, burning of villages, and sexual violence. OCHA reports that as of December 2025, 19.9 million people—over a third of the country's population—are in humanitarian need. OCHA cites active fighting, administrative restrictions imposed by all sides, and harassment of humanitarian personnel as barriers to providing assistance. A March 2025 earthquake, measured at magnitude 7.7 and centered in northern Burma, exacerbated humanitarian need and reportedly killed over 3,800 people.

The resistance to Burma's junta is diverse and does not share a common vision for the country's future. The NUG has held Burma's seat at the United Nations since the coup took place. Numerous EAOs exert varying levels of administrative control in regions of the country and have stepped up their decades-long fight for autonomy. Other opponents of the military government have formed informal militias known as People's Defense Forces (PDFs) and waged sabotage campaigns against the regime.

U.S. Policy

Following the coup, the Biden Administration responded with sanctions and other restrictive actions against the military government. Under Executive Order 14014, the Administration imposed a range of sanctions on the regime, its backers, and numerous military-linked companies including the state oil and gas monopoly. It made citizens of Burma who could demonstrate continuous residence in the United States as of March 11, 2021, eligible for Temporary Protected Status (TPS). In December 2025, the Trump Administration announced it would revoke TPS status for the approximately 3,700 Burmese citizens who qualified, effective January 26, 2026.

For FY2024 and FY2025, Congress appropriated $121 million annually for democracy, human rights, and governance-related programs and humanitarian assistance related to Burma. However, the Trump Administration's cuts to foreign assistance and its policies toward refugees leaves much U.S. assistance toward Burma and immigrants from Burma in flux. U.S. programs to support refugees from Burma in Thailand reportedly were eliminated in March 2025, as were human rights and democracy programs aimed at groups in exile. The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) sent a humanitarian assessment team to Burma following the March 2025 earthquake, but its members received termination notices while on the ground. In June 2025, the Trump Administration listed Burma as one of 12 countries for which the United States would not issue entry visas.

Since the coup, the United States has designated a wide range of military-linked companies and individuals from Burma for sanctions. In July 2025, the Treasury Department lifted sanctions on several military-linked companies and individuals, giving no formal explanation. On August 1, the Trump Administration announced a 40% tariff on all imports from Burma. The Administration has expressed interest in access to Burma's critical minerals, though these commodities are largely mined in areas under EAO control.

International Actions

The UN Security Council has passed a series of resolutions condemning the coup and calling for a cessation of violence and dialogue among all stakeholders in Burma. In December 2022, UNSC Resolution 2668 called for an immediate cessation of violence, unhindered access for humanitarian assistance, and the protection of all civilians. In April 2021, leaders of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), of which Burma is a member, agreed on a "Five-Point Consensus" calling for: an immediate end to violence, dialogue among all parties, the appointment of an ASEAN special envoy, humanitarian assistance from ASEAN to Burma, and the junta to allow the special envoy to visit and meet with all parties. ASEAN has not invited Min Aung Hlaing to its summits since the coup.

China, which shares a 1,350-mile border with Burma, has maintained links with successive national governments and with ethnic groups close to the PRC border. There is mistrust between the Burma's military and Beijing, reflecting Burma's desire not to be dominated by its larger neighbor and PRC concerns about instability. In 2023, China tacitly supported an offensive by ethnic militias, reportedly due to concerns about the proliferation of cyber-scam operators in Burma that target PRC citizens. In a later sign of support, the PRC government hosted Min Aung Hlaing in Beijing in November 2024. China has substantial infrastructure investments in Burma, including an oil pipeline that connects China with the Bay of Bengal.

Plight of the Rohingya

The Rohingya, a predominantly Sunni Muslim ethnic minority in western Burma, have been subjected to systematic and pervasive discrimination and abuse by Burma's military since the 1962 coup. Unlike most ethnic groups in Burma, the Rohingya are not recognized by the government or most ethnic-Burman citizens as an "official" ethnic minority. In 1982, the military junta promulgated a citizenship law that stripped the Rohingya of citizenship. In 2017-2018, violence by the military and others in Rakhine state, home to most Rohingya, killed over 9,000 and resulted in the exodus of over 900,000 people into neighboring Bangladesh. The vast majority still reside in refugee camps in Bangladesh. Human Rights Watch estimates that another 130,000 Muslims, overwhelmingly Rohingya, live in internal displacement camps in western Burma, where they settled during earlier periods of violence. Fighting between the junta and the Arakan Army, an ethnic armed organization in Rakhine State, reportedly has resulted in more violence against the roughly 630,000 Rohingya still in Burma. In March 2022, then-Secretary of State Antony Blinken announced a determination that members of Burma's military had committed genocide and crimes against humanity against the Rohingya.