Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations

Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations

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Updated January 12, 2024
Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations
Military operations, both in peacetime and in war, are an
The current command and control architecture for DOD is a
inherently complex undertaking. One key to success,
product of these congressionally mandated changes.
therefore, is a clear, unified chain of command. This
enables senior leaders in the U.S. government—in
The Chain of Command
particular, the President and the Secretary of Defense—to
Title 10 U.S.C. §162 specifies that the chain of command
command and control military forces around the world.
for military operations goes from the President, to the
Secretary of Defense, to Commanders of Combatant
A (Very) Brief History of the Chain of Command
Commands. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff acts
The way the United States commands and controls its
as an intermediary, transmitting orders between the
forces is in large part a product of an inherent tension
Secretary of Defense and the Commanders of Combatant
between improving the effectiveness of U.S. forces, on the
Commands. Each Combatant Commander is a four-star
one hand, and preserving civilian control of the military, on
Flag or General Officer, whose appointment is confirmed
the other. The experience of World War II convinced
by the Senate.
President Truman, among others, that a greater degree of
coordination and integration between the U.S. military
Unified Command Plan (UCP)
services was necessary to improve the conduct of military
The UCP is a classified executive branch document that
operations. Yet there was concern at the time that
articulates how DOD assigns responsibility for different
integrating these institutions might result in an overly
missions and areas of the world. It is prepared by the
powerful military staff element that could threaten the
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff every two years and
principle of civilian control of U.S. forces.
approved by the President. Each UCP sets forth basic
guidance to all unified combatant commanders; establishes
The resulting compromise was to create a Joint Chiefs of
their missions, responsibilities, and force structure;
Staff (JCS), comprising all the military service chiefs, and
delineates the general geographical area of responsibility
headed by a Chairman serving as an advisory body only. As
for geographic combatant commanders; and specifies
a corporate body, the JCS was specifically not designed to
functional responsibilities for functional combatant
exercise command; the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of
commanders. Congress is not included in this review
Staff (CJCS) had no command authority. The JCS did,
process but does have visibility into issues affecting UCP
however, have responsibility for establishing “unified
development. It is through the UCP that DOD develops its
combatant commands,” which were charged with executing
global map of areas of responsibilities for its Combatant
military operations in different parts of the world by
Commanders, reflected in Figure 1.
combining the capabilities of two or more military services.
Different service chiefs were assigned executive and
Figure 1. Combatant Commanders’ Area of
administrative responsibilities for these combatant
Responsibility
commands, which gave them a mechanism through which
they could influence ongoing military operations. By 1953,
the authority to establish Combatant Commands
(COCOMs) was assigned to the Secretary of Defense,
although the relative ambiguity of the chain of command
remained a feature of Department of Defense (DOD)
operations until 1986.
Perceived shortcomings in the U.S. chain of command led
to demonstrable failures during several incidents in the late
1970s and early 1980s. The military services, in the view of
many observers, failed to effectively plan or conduct
operations jointly due to confusion over whether the
military services or unified combatant commanders were
ultimately in charge of operations. These incidents included

Source: Association of the U.S. Army, “The Army on Point: A
the 1983 operation in Grenada; the 1980 Iranian hostage
Detailed Summary of Current Operations and Responsibilities
rescue attempt (officially “Operation Eagle Claw” but often
(2022),” August 5, 2022. Accessed November 28, 2022,
called “Desert One”); and the 1983 bombing of the Marine
https://www.ausa.org/publications/army-point-detailed-summary-
Barracks in Beirut, Lebanon. In 1986, Congress passed the
current-operations-and-responsibilities-2022.
Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reform Act (P.L. 99-433),
which mandated clarifications to the chain of command.
https://crsreports.congress.gov

Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations
The Combatant Commands Today
• U.S. Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM),
A COCOM is a military command with broad continuing
which provides air, land and sea transportation to
missions under a single commander and composed of
different components of DOD. It is located at Scott Air
significant assigned components of two or more military
Force Base, IL.
departments. There are currently eleven Combatant
Commands. The COCOMs have responsibility for the
• U.S. Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM) directs,
military’s operations in their respective areas.
synchronizes, and coordinates cyberspace planning and
operations to defend and advance national interests in
There are seven regionally focused COCOMS, which
collaboration with domestic and international partners. It
operate in clearly delineated areas of operation and have a
is located at Fort George G. Meade, MD.
distinctive regional military focus:
Service Component Commands
• U.S. Africa Command (USAFRICOM), responsible for
Service Component Commands consist of organizations,
sub-Saharan Africa. It is located at Kelley Barracks,
individuals, units, detachments, and/or support forces that
Stuttgart, Germany.
belong to a particular military service but are assigned to a
Combatant Commander. As an example, U.S. Army Central
• U.S. European Command (USEUCOM), responsible for
(USARCENT), U.S. Naval Forces Central Command
all of Europe, large portions of Central Asia, parts of the
(USNAVCENT), and U.S. Air Forces Central Command
Middle East, and the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans. It is
(USAFCENT) are all service component commands to U.S.
located at Patch Barracks, Stuttgart, Germany.
Central Command (USCENTCOM). These components are
subordinate to their respective Combatant Commanders.
• U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM), responsible
for most of the Middle East, parts of Northern Africa
The Laws Governing COCOMs
and west Asia, and part of the Indian Ocean. It is located
COCOMs are governed by the provisions contained in
at MacDill Air Force Base, FL.
Sections 161 through 167b of Title10, Armed Forces, U.S.
Code. These sections address the following provisions:
• U.S. Northern Command (USNORTHCOM),
responsible for the defense of the continental United
• Section 161: The establishment of COCOMs;
States and coordination of security and military
relationships with Canada and Mexico. It is located at
• Section 162: Chain of command and assignment of
Peterson Air Force Base, CO.
forces for COCOMs;
• U.S. Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM),
• Section 163: Role of the CJCS;
responsible for Central America, South America, and
the Caribbean. It is located in Miami, FL.
• Section 164: Assignment and powers and duties of
commanders of COCOMs;
• U.S. Indo-Pacific Command (USINDOPACOM),
responsible for the Pacific Ocean, Southwest Asia,
• Section 165: Administration and support of COCOMs;
Australia, south Asia, and part of the Indian Ocean. It
shares responsibility for Alaska with U.S. Northern
• Section 166: COCOM budget proposals;
Command. It is located at Camp H.M. Smith, HI.
• Section 166a: Funding COCOMs through the CJCS;
• U.S. Space Command (USSPACECOM), provides
space combat power for the Joint/Combined force and
• Section 166b: Funding for combating terrorism
develops joint warfighters in, from, and through the
readiness initiatives;
space domain. It is located at Peterson Air Force Base,
CO.
• Section 167: Unified COCOMs for special operations
forces; and
There are also four “functional” COCOMs, which operate
worldwide across geographic boundaries and provide
• Section 167b: Unified COCOM for cyber operations.
unique capabilities to geographic combatant commands and
the services:
CRS Products
• U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM), responsible
CRS Report R44474, Goldwater-Nichols at 30: Defense Reform
for deterring attacks on the United States and its allies
and Issues for Congress, by Kathleen J. McInnis
and directing the use of U.S. strategic forces. It is
located at Offutt Air Force Base, NE.
Kathleen J. McInnis was the original author of this product.
• U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM), which Nathan J. Lucas, Coordinator, Section Research Manager
provides special forces, counter-paramilitary, counter-
narcotics, guerilla, psychological warfare, civil
IF10542
education, and insurgency capabilities. It is located at
MacDill Air Force Base, FL.
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Defense Primer: Commanding U.S. Military Operations

Disclaimer
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