Space Exploration

Space Exploration

Updated September 2, 2016
Space Exploration
Overview
International Space Station. The ISS, which orbits Earth
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration
at an altitude of 200 to 250 miles, is composed of crew
(NASA) is the primary federal agency for civil space
living space, laboratories, remote manipulator systems,
programs. The National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
solar arrays to generate electricity, and other elements.
Administration (NOAA) and the U.S. Geological Survey
Crews have occupied the ISS on four- to six-month
(USGS) also operate civil satellites. The U.S. commercial
rotations since November 2000. The U.S. Commercial
space industry provides equipment and services to both the
Space Launch Competitiveness Act extended the authority
government and the private sector. Several federal agencies
for continued U.S. use of the ISS through at least 2024.
have regulatory and other roles in commercial space.
To encourage more widespread use of the ISS for research,
NASA
the NASA Authorization Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-155)
With a budget of $19.3 billion in FY2016, NASA develops
designated the U.S. portion of the ISS as a national
and operates both manned and unmanned spacecraft. It also
laboratory. As directed by subsequent legislation, NASA
has programs in aeronautics research and education.
has contracted with the nonprofit Center for the
Advancement of Science in Space (CASIS) to manage the
Legislation in the 113th and 114th Congresses
ISS national laboratory function. ISS research utilization
In the 113th Congress, committees in both chambers
and the nature of ISS research continue to be of
developed NASA reauthorization bills. The House bill
congressional interest.
(H.R. 4412) passed the House in June 2014. The Senate bill
(S. 1317) was reported by the Committee on Commerce,
NASA used to rely on the space shuttle to carry crews and
Science, and Transportation in December 2014 but did not
cargo to and from the ISS. The space shuttle fleet was
receive floor action. The most contentious issue for both
retired after the final flight of Atlantis in July 2011. Since
bills was the authorization of appropriations, but both also
then, ISS cargo has been carried by Russian, European, and
contained numerous policy provisions about the scope,
Japanese spacecraft, and more recently, by two U.S.
direction, and management of individual NASA programs.
commercial providers—Space Exploration Technologies
In the 114th Congress, the House has passed H.R. 810, and
(SpaceX) and Orbital Sciences—under contract to NASA.
the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology
In January 2016, NASA selected Sierra Nevada
has ordered H.R. 2039 to be reported. Both bills are similar
Corporation as a third commercial provider for ISS cargo
to H.R. 4412.
transport. Since the end of the space shuttle program, ISS
crews, including U.S. astronauts, have been carried
The first session of the 114th Congress enacted
exclusively by Russian Soyuz spacecraft.
appropriations legislation to fund NASA in FY2016. As
usual, committee reports accompanying the House and
Commercial Crew. NASA is funding two U.S.
Senate bills, as well as the explanatory statement
companies—Boeing and SpaceX—to develop a commercial
accompanying the final omnibus bill (P.L. 114-113), gave
capability to transport astronauts to and from the ISS and
substantial programmatic guidance to NASA as well as
potentially other destinations in Earth orbit. The target date
directing the allocation of funds. The second session is
for the first crewed flight to the ISS is in 2017. Advocates
considering appropriations for FY2017. The President
argue that using commercial providers will reduce NASA’s
submitted his FY2017 budget on February 9, 2016. The
costs through competition and encourage development of a
House Committee on Appropriations has reported H.R.
new commercial industry. Skeptics anticipate few non-
5393. The Senate Committee on Appropriations has
NASA customers, doubt that the market can support more
reported S. 2837.
than one provider, and express concerns about astronaut
safety. Congress and the Administration have often
The U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act
disagreed about the funding needs of the commercial crew
(P.L. 114-90), enacted in November 2015, addressed
program relative to NASA’s development efforts for
certain NASA human spaceflight programs, as well the
exploration beyond Earth orbit.
federal regulation and oversight of commercial spaceflight
and the legal regime for commercial asteroid mining.
Orion and the Space Launch System. As directed by the
NASA Authorization Act of 2010 (P.L. 111-267), NASA is
Human Spaceflight
developing new spacecraft for future human missions
NASA’s current efforts in human spaceflight include
beyond Earth orbit. These are the crew capsule Orion and a
operation of the International Space Station (ISS), support
new rocket, known as the Space Launch System (SLS), to
for the commercial development of U.S. spacecraft to take
carry Orion into space. A first (unmanned) test flight of
astronauts to and from the ISS, and development of
Orion, using an existing rocket, took place in December
spacecraft for future human exploration beyond Earth orbit.
2014. The first test flight of Orion on an SLS, again without
https://crsreports.congress.gov

Space Exploration
a crew, is planned for 2018. The first test flight with a crew
improving coordination between the two agencies has long
is expected in 2023.
been a focus of congressional interest.
Mars is widely agreed to be the long-term destination for
Landsat. The USGS operates Landsat satellites for land
human exploration of space. A mission to Mars, however,
remote sensing, with applications in agriculture, regional
would require substantial additional development, so Orion
planning, emergency response, and other areas. As with
and SLS are expected to visit other destinations first. NASA
weather satellites, there is some overlap with NASA’s
has proposed directing a large boulder from the surface of
research-oriented Earth science program. Views differ on
an asteroid into orbit around the Moon, where it could be
the best approach to future land-imaging satellites. Some
visited by astronauts on an early Orion/SLS mission. This
stakeholders advocate alternative approaches, such as
proposal has met with some skepticism in Congress. Other
privatization or international partnerships. Others prefer the
possible destinations include the Moon itself, an asteroid or
current model: stand-alone satellites under USGS
comet in its original orbit, and a Mars fly-by or orbit.
management. Other issues for Congress include cost control
and data continuity.
Science
NASA’s science program consists largely of unmanned
Commercial Space
spacecraft such as the Hubble Space Telescope and the
A survey by the Department of Commerce found that U.S.
Mars rover Curiosity. The program also conducts some
companies had $62.9 billion in space-related sales in 2012.
research from aircraft. There are four main research areas:
While U.S. government programs provided much of this
planetary science, Earth science, astrophysics, and
market, about one quarter of sales were within the
heliophysics. In addition, NASA’s Science Mission
commercial sector.
Directorate acquires and launches satellites on behalf of
other agencies, such as NOAA.
New Space. Some observers have identified an emerging
“new space” sector of relatively new companies focused on
Planetary Science. Three NASA planetary science probes
private spaceflight at low cost. One factor driving this trend
have recently reached their destinations. Dawn arrived at
is NASA’s reliance on commercial providers for access to
the asteroid Ceres in March 2015, and New Horizons
the ISS, but “new space” companies are also focused on
encountered Pluto in July 2015. These were the first two
other markets. These include the launch of national security
spacecraft to study dwarf planets at close range. In July
satellites for the Department of Defense, the launch of
2016, Juno entered orbit around Jupiter for a mission
commercial satellites for U.S. and foreign companies, and
scheduled to last through February 2018.
even space tourism.
Earth Science. NASA funding for Earth science has risen
FAA Regulation. The Federal Aviation Administration
from a low of $1.2 billion in FY2007 to about $1.9 billion
(FAA) licenses commercial space launch and reentry,
in FY2016. Recent congressional debates over NASA
including commercial spaceports. As part of the FAA
science funding have often balanced support for Earth
licensing process, the federal government indemnifies
science against support for planetary science. Climate
launch providers against certain third-party liabilities. The
research is a major element of NASA’s Earth science
U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act
program. As a result, congressional attitudes toward the
extended this indemnification policy (for the ninth time
program often align with positions on climate change.
since 1988) through September 2025. The act also extended
through September 2023 a statutory moratorium that
James Webb Space Telescope. In NASA’s astrophysics
restricts the FAA’s authority to regulate the safety of
program, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) is
crewed spaceflight. The status of human spaceflight safety
intended to be a successor to Hubble. Following a series of
regulations has been a focus of recent congressional interest
schedule delays and cost overruns between 2005 and 2010,
because of NASA’s plans for commercial crewed flights to
NASA developed a revised plan for the JWST in 2011. In
the ISS.
2012, Congress capped the telescope’s formulation and
development costs and mandated annual reports on the
Other Federal Roles. Several other federal agencies are
program by the Government Accountability Office. The
also involved in the commercial space industry. NOAA
fourth such report, in December 2015, stated that the
licenses commercial imaging satellites. The Federal
program remains on its revised schedule and budget for
Communications Commission licenses the use of radio
launch in late 2018, but that it will soon face some of its
frequencies by commercial satellites and assigns locations
most technically challenging integration and testing, a
for satellites in geostationary orbits. The National
phase when problems are often identified and schedules
Transportation Safety Board investigates certain spacecraft
tend to slip. The JWST continues to receive close
accidents. The Department of Commerce Office of Space
congressional oversight.
Commerce supports and promotes U.S. space commerce.
Oversight of export controls on commercial
Other U.S. Civil Space Programs
communications satellites shifted from the Department of
NOAA Weather Satellites. NOAA operates geostationary
State to the Department of Commerce in 2014.
and polar-orbiting satellites to provide data for weather
forecasting and other purposes. Although NOAA’s
Daniel Morgan, Specialist in Science and Technology
operational satellites differ from NASA’s research-oriented
Policy
Earth science satellites, they share some characteristics, and
https://crsreports.congress.gov

Space Exploration

IF10016

Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10016 · VERSION 7 · UPDATED