FEMA and Disaster Relief

FEMA and Disaster Relief

97-159 GOV
CRS Report for Congress
Received through the CRS Web
FEMA and Disaster Relief
Updated March 6, 1998
Keith Bea
Specialist in American National Government
Government Division
Congressional Research Service ˜ The Library of Congress

FEMA and Disaster Relief
Summary
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) helps states and
localities prepare for and cope with disasters that overwhelm their own capabilities.
FEMA administers policies related to emergency management and planning, disaster
relief, fire prevention, earthquake hazard reduction, emergency broadcasting services,
flood insurance, mitigation programs, and dam safety.
President Clinton has requested $3.1 billion for FEMA in FY1999. The
majority of the funds ($2.3 billion, or 75%) are requested as disaster relief funding
that would only be available should the President and Congress designate it as
emergency funding under the Balanced Budget Act. The remaining 25% ($844
million) would fund agency salaries, grants to state and local governments, and
training activities, and would replenish the Disaster Relief Fund with $308 million.
For the past 14 years, annual appropriations for FEMA have ranged from as little as
$600 million to a high of approximately $5.9 billion, including supplemental
measures. For FY1998, a total of $842 million is available, as appropriated in P.L.
105-65. In FY1997 a total of $5.1 billion was appropriated—$1.8 billion in the
FY1997 appropriations legislation (P.L. 104-204) and $3.3 billion in supplemental
appropriations (P.L. 105-18).
The principal federal authority for the provision of disaster relief is the Robert
T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (the Stafford Act). The
act authorizes the President to issue major disaster or emergency declarations (the
latter provide considerably less federal assistance than the former), sets out eligibility
criteria, and specifies the types of assistance the President may authorize.
Specifically, grants are provided to individuals to meet urgent housing needs,
purchase necessary personal items, and obtain legal services needed as a result of the
disaster. For state and local governments and non-profit corporations, funds are
provided for the repair or reconstruction of infrastructure damaged or destroyed, for
debris removal, and for the construction of protective measures. In addition to this
assistance authorized under the Stafford Act, federal disaster assistance is provided
by the Small Business Administration, the Department of Defense, the Department
of Transportation, and other agencies.
Funding for Stafford Act related activities varies from one year to another,
depending on the severity and frequency of declared catastrophes. In recent years
billions of dollars have been appropriated to help communities recover from
Hurricane Andrew, the Northridge earthquake, and other incidents. In response to
congressional demands, the Clinton Administration has submitted legislation
(S. 1007/H.R. 2446) to reduce certain disaster relief expenditures. The legislation
would also increase certain expenditures and federal authority for hazard mitigation
activities.

Contents
Overview of FEMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Basic Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Statutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Executive Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Agency Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Disaster Relief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Overview of the Stafford Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Types of Major Disaster Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Human Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Infrastructure Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Hazard Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Sequence of Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Cost Share Requirements and Waivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Funding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Appendix A. Significant Federal Disaster
Relief Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Appendix B. Major Disaster and Emergency Declarations and Number of States
Affected, 1975-1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Appendix C. FEMA Major Disaster Assistance, by State, Calendar Years 1974-1997
26
Appendix D: FEMA Organization Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
List of Tables
Table 1. FEMA Funding, FY1984-FY1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Table 2. FEMA Funding by Account, Requests, Appropriations and Outlays,
FY1997-FY1999 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Table 3. Stafford Act Obligations for Recent, Costly
Major Disasters, as of July 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Table 4. Major Disaster Declarations with Cost Share Adjustments, November 1985
- August 1997 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Table 5. Disaster Relief Fund: Requests, Appropriations, and Outlays, FY1974-
FY1998 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Table C. FEMA Major Disaster Assistance, by State, 1974-1997
(dollars in thousands, constant 1997) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

FEMA and Disaster Relief
Overview of FEMA
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) was established in June
1979 by President Carter to improve the responsiveness of the federal government
to catastrophes in the United States and insular areas. FEMA provides financial and
technical assistance to states and localities overwhelmed by disasters.
FEMA administers policies related to emergency management and planning,
evacuation, and matters often associated with civil defense, disaster relief, fire
prevention, earthquake hazard reduction, emergency broadcasting services, flood
insurance, mitigation programs, and da
1
m safety. Prior to the development of FEMA,
these functions were administered by various agencies of the executive branch, such
as the Defense Civil Preparedness Agency of the Department of Defense, the Federal
Disaster Assistance Administration of the Department of Housing and Urban
Development (disaster relief), and the National Fire Prevention and Control
Administration of the Department of Commerce (fire prevention and control).2
Overview information on FEMA is available on the World Wide Web at
http://www.fema.gov.
The current Director of FEMA is James Lee Witt. In November 1993, FEMA
reorganized the agency’s 2,500 employees into five directorates, two administrations
(the Federal Insurance Administration and the U.S. Fire Administration) and 10
regional offices. The most recent organizational chart of FEMA is presented in
Appendix D of this report.
FEMA on occasion has been enveloped in controversy. In 1992, the agency was
criticized for actions not taken after Hurricane Andrew struck south Florida. Some
1 Mitigation activities reduce losses in future disasters through structural changes (e.g.,
building dams or levees) and nonstructural changes (e.g., modifying land use patterns,
relocating communities, or enacting and enforcing zoning ordinances).
2 U.S. President (Carter), “Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1978,” H. Doc. 95-356, 95th
Cong., 2nd sess. (Washington: GPO, 1978) p . 6 and “Federal Emergency Management
Agency,” Executive Order 12127, Public Papers of the Presidents, Jimmy Carter
(Washington: GPO, Mar. 31, 1979) p. 566 and “Federal Emergency Management,”
Executive Order 12148, Public Papers of the Presidents, Jimmy Carter (Washington: GPO,
July 20, 1979) p. 1277.

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argued that administrators had not fully integrated the many missions of the agency.3
The reorganization of the agency in 1993 was the Clinton Administration’s response
to that criticism and to concerns expressed by Members of Congress and others that
the agency should focus on its core function, disaster relief.4
The Government Performance and Results Act (P.L. 103-62) requires that
federal agencies develop strategic plans and objectives, measure performance, and
link budgets to performance plans. The intent is to encourage efficiency,
effectiveness, and accountability in spending practices. In September 1997, FEMA
released its first strategic plan pursuant to the Act’s requirements. The missio
5
n
statement in the agency plan focuses FEMA’s efforts to reduce future loss of life and
property through timely delivery of assistance that is intended to help communities
restore damaged services and rebuild facilities. Most emergency management
responsibilities for the agency are addressed in the plan. A few authorities, notably
that pertaining to the Emergency Food and Shelter program, are not mentioned or
receive little attention.6
Basic Authorities
FEMA is charged with the administration of a range of authorities and
programs. The most significant responsibilities and the pertinent authorities are
found in the following statutes and executive orders.
Statutes.
Continuity of government. (National Security Act of 1947, 50 U.S.C. 404,
405 and Defense Production Act of 1950, 50 U.S.C. App. 2061 et seq.)
Disaster relief. Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency
Assistance Act, 42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq. Includes civil defense authorities
previously found in Civil Defense Act of 1950, 50 U.S.C. App. 2251 et seq.)
Earthquakes. (Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 1977, 42 U.S.C.
7701 et seq.)
3 National Academy of Public Administration, Coping with Catastrophe,
(Washington: 1993), pp. 41-68.
4 See, for example: U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs,
Rebuilding FEMA: Preparing for the Next Disaster, hearing, 103rd Cong., 1 sess., May
st
18, 1993 (Washington: GPO, 1994), p. 335. For a discussion of the reorganization of
FEMA see: Richard T. Sylves, “Ferment at FEMA: Reforming Emergency Management,”
Public Administration Review, vol. 54, May/June 1994, pp. 303-307.
5 U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Partnership for a Safer Future
(Washington: Sept. 1997), p. 62. The strategic plan is also available on the FEMA website
at http://www.fema.gov/library/spln_1.htm, visited Feb. 20, 1998.
6 For an analysis of the final strategic plan see: U.S. Library of Congress,
Congressional Research Service, Federal Emergency Management Agency and the 1997
Government Performance and Results Act Strategic Plan, by Keith Bea, CRS Report 98-38
GOV (Washington: Jan. 12, 1998), p. 31.

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Emergency food and shelter. (Title III, Stewart B. McKinney Homeless
Assistance Act, 42 U.S.C. 11331 et seq.)
Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act of 1986. (42
U.S.C. 11001 et seq.)
Fire control. (Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974, 15 U.S.C.
2201 et seq.)
Flood insurance. (National Flood Insurance Act of 1968, 42 U.S.C. 4001
et seq.)
Hazardous Materials Transportation Act. (49 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.)
Nuclear facility emergencies. (Atomic Energy Act of 1954, 42 U.S.C.
2011 et seq.)
Nuclear Regulatory Commission Authorization of 1980. (Atomic Energy
Act of 1964, 42 U.S.C. 2011 et seq.)
Urban Property Protection and Reinsurance Act of 1968. (12 U.S.C.
1749666 et seq. National Insurance Development Fund)
Executive Orders.
E.O. 12148. Federal Emergency Management. July 20, 1979. Amended
by Executive Orders 12155, 12156, 12319, 12356, 12379, 12381, and 12919.
E.O. 12155. Strategic and Critical Materials. Sept. 10, 1979. Amended
by Executive Order 12417.
E.O. 12156. Federal Emergency Management Agency; Department of
Energy. Sept. 10, 1979.
E.O. 12241. National Contingency Plan. Sept. 29, 1980.
E.O. 12265. Federal Consumer Programs. Jan. 15, 1981. Amended by
Executive Order 12160.
E.O. 12417. Strategic and Critical Materials. May 2, 1983. Amends
Executive Order 12155.
E.O. 12472. Assignment of National Security and Emergency
Preparedness Telecommunications Functions. Apr. 3, 1984.
E.O. 12656. Assignment of Emergency Preparedness Responsibilities.
Nov. 18, 1988.

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E.O. 12657. Federal Emergency Management Agency Assistance in
Emergency Preparedness Planning at Commercial Nuclear Power Plants. Nov.
18, 1988.
E.O. 12699. Seismic Safety of Federal and Federally Assisted or
Regulated New Building Construction. Jan. 5, 1990.
E.O. 12788. Defense Economic Adjustment Program. Jan. 15, 1992.
E.O. 12816. Management Improvement in the Federal Government. Oct.
14, 1992.
E.O. 12919. National Defense Industrial Resources Preparedness. June
3, 1994.
E.O. 12941. Seismic Safety of Existing Federally Owned or Leased
Buildings. Dec. 1, 1994.
Agency Funding.
For the past 15 years the annual appropriations for FEMA have ranged from a
low of $600 million to a high of approximately $5.9 billion. In FY1997, $5.1 billion
was appropriated, including $3.3 billion in supplementals. FY1998 funding totals
$829 million (current estimate).
The wide variation in funding is generally attributable to supplemental
appropriations enacted to provide assistance after particularly destructive hurricanes
and earthquakes. Table 1, below, provides information on administration requests
and the appropriations approved each year since 1984.

Some patterns in requests and appropriations can be seen in Table 1. First,
administration requests for operating accounts, emergency food and shelter, and other
funding not associated with supplemental disaster relief hovered between $500 and
$800 million, with relatively small shifts from one year to another. Second,
appropriations have increased dramatically in recent years, compared to the lower
levels approved during FY1984-FY1988. Third, in most years, appropriations
usually have greatly exceeded requests, occasionally by magnitudes of four or five
times the amount requested.
The difficulty of planning for disaster funding needs is apparent in the funding
pattern from FY1989-FY1996. In late September, 1989, (FY1989) Hurricane Hugo
struck Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Carolinas. Two weeks later, on
October 17, (FY1990) the Loma Prieta earthquake struck San Francisco. To meet
the needs from these incidents, roughly $2 billion was appropriated. In FY1991,
disaster relief funds were not needed due to the continued availability of
appropriations from the previous two years. However, the arrival of Hurricane
Andrew in 1992 created new demands, requiring appropriations of over $5 billion in
FY1992 in response not only to that record-breaking event, but also to other

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catastrophes, including Hurricane Iniki (Hawaii) and Typhoon Omar (Guam).7
Perhaps of greatest significance, the $6 billion obligated by FEMA after the
Northridge earthquake struck California in 1994 required additional supplemental
appropriations.
Table 1. FEMA Funding, FY1984-FY1999
(dollars in thousands)
Administration request
Appropriations
Constant

Constant
FY
Nominal $
1997 $
Nominal $
1997 $
1984
$559,928
$842,124
$577,416
$868,425
1985
$830,277
$1,198,610
$759,500
$1,096,434
1986
$634,922
$891,119
$862,802
$1,210,950
1987
$469,250
$633,180
$631,000
$851,437
1988
$613,394
$801,927
$632,111
$826,397
1989
$698,396
$885,840
$1,753,677
$2,224,349
1990
$796,273
$966,233
$1,795,820
$2,179,129
1991
$819,272
$955,977
$562,973
$656,911
1992
$723,515
$827,252
$4,834,065
$5,527,172
1993
$817,886
$912,107
$2,562,347
$2,857,530
1994
$796,846
$869,634
$5,928,474
$6,470,014
1995
$702,264
$743,451
$4,102,128
$4,342,714
1996
$817,119
$837,899
$3,972,472
$4,073,495
1997
$792,300
$696,956
$5,105,065
$4,490,733
1998c
$3,226,028
$2,819,955
$829,454
$725,047
1999
$831,182
$708,595
NA
NA
Source: FEMA justification of budget estimates, published annually by House Committee on
Appropriations. Constant dollar calculation based on chain-type price index for state and local government
consumption, February 1998, obtained from U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis
website (STATUSA subscription).
aInitial request by the President. Does not include subsequent adjustments.
Includes all appropriations, including supplementals.
b
cRequest for FY1998 included $2.4 billion for disaster relief. The FY1997 supplemental appropriations
approved in P.L. 105-18 included $3.3 billion, $2.3 billion of which is available in FY1998. See
Table 4 of this report for further information on disaster relief appropriations.
Request for FY1999 also includes emergency contingency request of $2.3 billion for disaster relief, pending
d
designation of that amount as emergency funding by the President and the Congress.
Six appropriations accounts constitute FEMA’s budget, as summarized below:
! Salaries and expenses (S&E) - Funds used for employee salaries, benefits, and
non-personnel costs such as travel, rental payments, supplies, and equipment.
7 Money is generally appropriated to the disaster relief fund not only for individual
catastrophic events, but for all declared disasters as well.

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Allocations are made among directorates, administrations, and regional
offices;
! Office of Inspector General (OIG) - Investigations, audits, and inspections are
carried out with these funds. The Office of Inspector General was established
by P.L. 100-504;
! Disaster Relief Fund (DRF) - As authorized by the Stafford Act (see next
section of this report), funds are distributed to state and local governments,
non-profit organizations, and individuals for assistance after the President
declares a major disaster or an emergency. Also, the FEMA Director may
award fire suppression assistance funds to lessen major fire destruction;
! Emergency Management and Planning Assistance (EMPA) - EMPA funds a
range of emergency management programs for state and local governments.
Grantees may use funds to improve readiness, simulations and drills, and fire
prevention, and to undertake mitigation activities that reduce losses from
future disasters. These funds are also used by FEMA to improve information
technology, transportation, and communication facilities that are dispatched
to disaster areas;
! Emergency Food and Shelter Program (EFSP) - Funding is distributed by a
National Board (composed of representatives of certain voluntary agencies)
to shelters and kitchens that serve the homeless. Local service providers may
use the money to provide food, limited rental assistance, or home repair, or to
operate shelters;
! Disaster Assistance Loan Subsidy (DLS) - Under the Stafford Act FEMA may
provide loans to states or other public applicants which need assistance to
meet the cost-share provisions.
FEMA administers a number of revenue based funds that, as a rule, do not
require appropriations. These include the following.
1.
A Working Capital Fund was established in the FY1997 appropriations
legislation (P.L. 104-204) to provide for more efficient administrative practices.
Funds have not been appropriated; instead, future appropriations, payments
from entities within FEMA, other federal agencies, or other sources “authorized
by law” pay for administrative services better performed through central
services. The fund was available without fiscal year limitation. The FY1998
appropriations legislation (P.L. 105-65) does not contain the Working Capital
Fund provisions, but the request for FY1999 does contain such a provision.
2.
The National Insurance Development Fund provided riot and crime insurance
since the 1968 civil disturbances. Authority for this fund has expired, and the
activity is being closed out.
3.
The National Flood Insurance Fund reimburses homeowners who elect to
participate in the program. Money necessary for payments is obtained from

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premium payments and borrowed from the U.S. Treasury. According to the
Director of FEMA, roughly $800 million has been borrowed as of March 1998.
4.
Bequests and gifts for disaster relief assistance are administered through the
Cora Brown Fund.
5.
The President’s request for FY1999 includes a one-time appropriation for the
Radiological Emergency Preparedness (REP) Fund. The revenue in this
fund, collected from licensed operators of nuclear power plants, is used to help
state and local government prepare for possible incidents in communities
surrounding those facilities. While such fees have been collected in past years
to offset appropriations, the intent is to establish a self-supporting fund. Start-
up funding of $12.8 million is requested for FY1999.
Table 2 provides detail on the six budget accounts for the agency for the most recent
years, along with information on new budget proposals for FY1999.

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Table 2. FEMA Funding by Account, Requests, Appropriations and Outlays, FY1997-FY1999
(dollars in millions)
FY1997
FY1998
FY1999
Request
Appropriation
Outlay
Request
Appropriation
Outlaya
Request
Appropriation
Outlaya
DRF
$320
$4,620
$2,551
c$2,758
$320
$3,252
$2,566
b
NA
$2,642
S&E
$167
$174
$208
$176
$172
$175
$171
NA
$172
EMP
$199
$219
$183
$265
$ 244
d
$228
$196
NA
$218
IG
$5
$5
$6
$5
$5
$5
$5
NA
$5
EFS
$100
$100
$100
$100
$100
$100
$100
NA
$100
DLS
$2
$2
$34
$2
$2
$7
$2
NA
$2
d
d
MIT
NA
NA
NA
NA
$50
NA
$25
REPe
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
NA
$13
NA
($4)
Sources: U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Appendix, Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 1998, (Washington: 1997), pp. 1047-1055.
and U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Departments of Veterans Affairs and Housing and Urban Development, and Independent Agencies
Appropriations for FY1998, 105 Cong., 1
th
st sess. (Washington: 1997), p. 355. Appropriations include supplementals. Does not include transfers or rescissions.
Note: Outlays may exceed appropriations in any fiscal year because funded activities may be carried over from previous fiscal years. This is particularly evident
with regard to the Disaster Relief Fund as some repair and replacement contracts require years to pay down.
aEstimates.
b Of this total $2.258 billion is requested as contingency funding, available only when designated by the President and the Congress as an emergency requirement
under the Balanced Budget Act, as amended.
c The FY1998 request included $50 million for a proposed mitigation program to be funded from the Disaster Relief Fund.
From
d
the amount appropriated in the EMP account, $30 million is available in FY1998 for hazard mitigation grants; $1.5 million, for a specified project in Jackson,
Mississippi.
e The REP fund would be based on fees collected from Nuclear Regulatory Commission licensees. The FY1999 request is expected to be “one-time” funding to
establish the fund. Offsetting receipts not shown.
Abbreviations:
DRF - Disaster relief fund
S&E - Salaries and expenses
EMP - Emergency management and planning
assistance
IG - Office of Inspector General
EFS - Emergency food and shelter program
DLS - Disaster assistance loan program
MIT - Pre-Disaster Mitigation
REP - Radiological Emergency Preparedness

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Disaster Relief
Overview of the Stafford Act
The principal federal authority for the provision of disaster relief is the Robert
T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act.8 The act authorizes the
President to issue major disaster or emergency declarations (the latter provide
considerably less federal assistance than the former), sets out eligibility criteria, and
specifies the types of assistance the President may authorize. Executive Order 12148
(1979) delegates to FEMA most of the authority granted to the President under the
Disaster Relief Act of 1974. Among the few authorities not delegated are those to:
(1) declare emergencies or major disasters; (2) repair or replace federal facilities; (3)
order the military to provide assistance; and (4) distribute food coupons and surplus
commodities.
The Stafford Act defines a major disaster in terms of specific “natural”
catastrophes (hurricane, tornado, tsunami, earthquake, volcanic eruption, and others)
and, “regardless of cause,” a fire, flood, or explosion. The explosions in New York
City’s World Trade Center in 1993 and in Oklahoma City in 1995, for example,
resulted in major disaster declarations
Not all catastrophes result in Stafford Act assistance. The statute requires that
the President, prior to issuing either an emergency or a major disaster declaration,
determine that sufficient damage has occurred to warrant assistance “to supplement
the efforts and available resources of states, local government, and disaster relief
organizations ....” While the President has
9
been granted considerable discretion in
deciding whether to issue a declaration, the statute requires that state and local
resources be overwhelmed before a disaster is declared. According to FEMA, 66
10
requests for major disaster declarations were received during FY1997. Of these
requests, 49 resulted in major disaster declarations; two were declared as
emergencies; and the remaining 15 did not result in any declaration. Table 3 lists
11
examples of recent especially destructive and costly events declared to be major
disasters.
8 P.L.93-288, the Disaster Relief Act of 1974 (May 22, 1974; 88 Stat. 143-164), as
amended by P.L. 100-707 (Nov. 23, 1988; 102 Stat. 4689-4711), 42 U.S.C. 5121 et seq.
The Act was further amended by the 103rd Congress as follows: modification of hazard
mitigation authority, P.L. 103-181 (Dec. 8, 1993; 107 Stat. 2054-2056) and transfer of civil
defense authority, P.L. 103-337 (Oct. 5, 1994; 108 Stat. 2663)
9 Section 102(2) of the Stafford Act, 42 U.S.C. 5122.
10 “All requests for a declaration by the President that a major disaster exists shall be
made by the Governor of the affected State. Such a request shall be based on a finding that
the disaster is of such severity and magnitude that effective response is beyond the
capabilities of the State and the affected local governments and that Federal assistance is
necessary.” 18 U.S.C. 5170, 102 Stat. 4696.
1 1 U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Justification of Estimates, Fiscal
Year 1999, (Washington: Feb. 1998), p. DR-4.

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Table 3. Stafford Act Obligations for Recent, Costly
Major Disasters, as of July 1995
(dollars in millions)
FEMA
Amount
Date of occurrence
contract no.
Disaster name
obligated
Sept. 17, 1989
841-844
Hurricane Hugo
$1,317
Oct. 17, 1989
845
Loma Prieta earthquake
$844
Aug. 24, 1992
955, 956
Hurricane Andrew
$1,832
June - July, 1993
993-1001
Midwest floods
$1,148
Jan. 17, 1994
1008
Northridge earthquake
$6,076
July 3, 1994
1033-1035
Tropical Storm Alberto
$437
Sept. 15, 1995
1067-1068
Hurricane Marilyn
$500
Sept. 5, 1996
1134-1135
Hurricane Fran
$542
Feb.-Mar. 1997
1173-1175
Dakota floods
$514
Source: FEMA, Office of Congressional Affairs, funding data as of Dec. 31, 1997.
Lesser catastrophes that overwhelm local and state governments may not result
in major disaster declarations, but may still be catalysts for federal action. Broader,
more inclusive language is used to define an “emergency” under the Stafford Act.
The act lists no specific causal events; instead, an emergency is an event in which
“Federal assistance is needed to supplement State and local efforts and capabilities
to save lives and to protect property and public health and safety, or to lessen or avert
the threat of a catastrophe in any part of the United States.” In 1995, damage
12
s
associated with Hurricane Erin in Florida and the bombing of the federal building in
Oklahoma City resulted in emergency declarations.13
Types of Major Disaster Assistance
Under the Stafford Act, federal agency heads may provide federal resources
(personnel, equipment, and technical services) to assist the stricken area after the
President has declared a major disaster. In addition, FEMA may provide grants for
specific types of assistance. A summary list of key types of assistance that may be
12 Section 102(1) of the Stafford Act, 42 U.S.C. 5122.
13 The bombing of the Alfred P. Murrah building on April 19, 1995, is significant from
the perspective of the Stafford Act for two reasons. First, the emergency declaration
(#3115-EM) initially issued was later revised as a major disaster declaration (#1048-DR).
Second, the initial emergency declaration marked the first time that a President issued an
emergency declaration without a request from the governor under authority of Section
501(b) of the Stafford Act (42 U.S.C. 5191). This provision authorizes the President to act
unilaterally if “the primary responsibility for response rests with the United States.”

CRS-11
provided is outlined below. Most of the assistance may be provided only under a
major disaster declaration. Except where noted, this assistance is authorized by the
Stafford Act. Beyond these measures, federal agencies other than FEMA provide aid
to disaster victims and communities.14 Appendix A of this report lists significant
federal disaster assistance programs currently available. The programs are listed by
funding agency. Types of assistance available from federal agencies are discussed
below.
Human Services.
Human services aid (formerly referred to as “Individual Assistance” programs)
is given to individuals and families to help disaster victims with essential needs and
to replace lost goods. The following types of assistance are provided by FEMA and
other agencies.
Disaster Housing Assistance (DHA). Authorized by Section 408 of the Stafford
Act (42 U.S.C. 5174), the DHA assures disaster victims a safe place to live until
repairs are completed on damaged residences. The basic forms of assistanc
15
e
include: money for rent payments, grants for essential home repair, and the provision
of mobile homes, when necessary. Funds are provided for expenses that are not
covered by insurance.
Individual and Family Grants. The Individual and Family Grant (IFG)
Program, authorized by Section 411 of the Stafford Act (42 U.S.C. 5178) is a
federal/state cost-shared program. It provides funds for the necessary expenses and
serious needs of disaster victims which cannot be met through other forms of disaster
assistance or through insurance. In FY1998, maximum grants of $13,400 may be
provided; historically, average grants approved ranged from $2,000 to $4,000.
Assistance from the IFG can be used for housing, personal property, medical, dental,
funeral, and transportation expenses, and for required flood insurance premiums.
The state administers the IFG program and pays 25% throughout the grant amount;
the federal government provides the remaining 75%.
Small Business Administration Disaster Loans. The Small Business
Administration (SBA) can make federally subsidized loans to repair or replace
homes, personal property, or businesses which sustained damages not covered by
insurance (15 U.S.C. 636(b)). Three types of disaster loans provided by SBA
include: (1) home disaster loans, to homeowners and renters to repair or replace
disaster-related damages to homes or personal property; (2) business physical disaster
1 4 For descriptions of other assistance programs see: U.S. Executive Office of the
President and U.S. General Services Administration, 1997 Catalog of Federal Domestic
Assistance, (Washington: 1997), pp. 1308. and U.S. Congress, Senate Bipartisan Task
Force on Funding Disaster Relief, Federal Disaster Assistance, S. Doc. 104-4 (Washington:
GPO, Mar. 15, 1995), p. 194.
15 Prior to FY1996 FEMA referred to this program using the statutory title, “Temporary
Housing Assistance.” For information on housing assistance, see: U.S. General Accounting
Office, Guidance Needed for FEMA’s “Fast Track” Housing Assistance Process, GAO
report RCED-98-1 (Washington: Oct. 17, 1997), p. 44.

CRS-12
loans, to business owners to repair or replace disaster-damaged property, including
inventory and supplies; and (3) economic injury disaster loans, which provide capital
to small businesses and to small agricultural cooperatives to assist them through the
disaster recovery period.
Farm Service Agency (FSA) Loans. The U.S. Department of Agriculture can
make loans of up to $500,000 for the repair or replacement of damaged farm and
aquaculture property and supplies (7 U.S.C. 1961). Assistance is authorized after a
presidential declaration of a major disaster or upon declaration by the Secretary of
Agriculture. Loans are provided at a 4.5% interest rate for no more than 20 years for
production (up to 80% of loss) and no more than 40 years for property (up to 100%
of loss). Assistance is provided only to those without access to credit.
Unemployment Assistance. Disaster unemployment assistance authorized by
Section 410 of the Stafford Act (42 U.S.C. 5177) is administered through the U.S.
Department of Labor. It is available for persons unemployed as a result of the
disaster. The assistance cannot exceed compensation limits established by the state
and continues to be provided until the individual is reemployed, but for not more than
26 weeks.
Food commodities. Commodities may be made available at mass feeding
locations and food coupons may be distributed to low-income households, as
authorized by Section 412 of the Stafford Act (42 U.S.C. 5179). Emergency
management regulations require that adequate stocks of food be ready and
conveniently available in any area of the United States which suffers a major disaster
or emergency.
Legal Services. Legal services which include legal advice, counseling, and
representation in non fee-generating cases may be provided to low-income
individuals who require them as a result of a major disaster. Authorized by Section
415 of the Stafford Act, 42 U.S.C. 5182.
Crisis Counseling. Counseling provided through the National Institute of
Mental Health, may be available to individuals or groups coping with mental or
emotional crises as a result of the disaster. Authorized by Section 416 of the Stafford
Act, 42 U.S.C. 5183.
Gifts and Bequests for Disaster Assistance. Other assistance may be provided
from the Cora Brown Fund administered by FEMA, for needs of disaster victims
which cannot be met through governmental or other organizational programs.
Established by bequest; see regulations at 44 CFR 206.181.
Infrastructure Assistance.
The infrastructure program provides funds to units of government and to certain
non-profit organizations to meet immediate needs of communities and to rebuild
disaster stricken areas. In addition to Stafford Act authority, legislation authorizes
the Department of Transportation to provide funds for the repair of damaged
highways.

CRS-13
Grants. Seven program areas have been established by FEMA to administer
infrastructure assistance authorized in Title IV of the Stafford Act. These include:
(1) Debris removal (Category A); (2) Protective measures (Category B); (3) Roads
and bridges (Category C); (4) Water control facilities (Category D); (5) Public
buildings (Category E); (6) Public utilities (Category F); and (7) Other (Category G).
Funding and technical assistance is provided to state and local governments and
certain private nonprofit institutions for the repair or replacement of facilities
damaged or destroyed by the disaster. This assistance is generally in the form of a
grant for not less than 75% of the cost of restoration (and hazard mitigation required
by FEMA) of facilities, including schools. FEMA also can provide assistance for
emergency protective measures, debris removal, emergency communications, and
emergency public transportation. Authorized in Sections 403, 406, and 407 of the
Stafford Act, 42 U.S.C. 5170b, 5172, and 5173.
Federal Aid to Highways. The U.S. Department of Transportation’s Federal
Highway Administration can provide financial and technical assistance for repair or
reconstruction of highways on the federal aid system, forest highways, park roads and
trails, and other similar projects damaged by the disaster. Authorized by 23 U.S.C.
125.
Hazard Mitigation.
Hazard Mitigation Planning. Section 409 of the Stafford Act (42 U.S.C. 5176)
requires that state and local governments evaluate the hazards within the disaster
area, and take appropriate steps to mitigate those hazards. Federal regulations require
a hazard mitigation plan to be developed 180 days after the disaster declaration.
Hazard Mitigation Grant Program. Section 404 of the Stafford Act (42 U.S.C.
5170c) established a program to fund mitigation measures after a disaster. FEMA
can contribute 75% of the cost of eligible mitigation measures. Total funding under
the current program is 15% of the estimated grants for individual assistance programs
and public assistance projects. Under this program, mitigation measures must be
cost-effective and must be consistent with mitigation plans required under Section
409 of the Stafford Act. The state is the grantee of the program and therefore has the
responsibility to solicit projects, establish guidelines, and review proposals prior to
review and approval by FEMA. Before July 1997, mitigation grants were provided
only to counties eligible for specified Stafford Act assistance. Since then, all areas
within a state that has received a disaster declaration are eligible for hazard
mitigation grants.16
Sequence of Events
1 6 U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency, “Disaster Assistance; Hazard
Mitigation Grant Program (Subpart N),” Federal Register, vol. 62, no. 129, July 7, 1997, p.
36289.

CRS-14
When a catastrophe strikes, the Governor of the affected state17 may ask the
President to declare that an emergency or major disaster exists if, in his or her
judgment, state and local resources are inadequate. FEMA staff from the regional
office, often accompanied by state and local officials, survey the area to assess the
costs and the extent of damages. The findings of the survey team, along with an
assessment of non-federal capabilities, are forwarded from the regional office to
FEMA headquarters. The Director of FEMA evaluates the reports and recommends
to the President whether an emergency or a major disaster declaration, if any, should
be issued. The President then decides whether to issue a declaration for each state
affected by the catastrophe.
18
Cost Share Requirements and Waivers
Before assistance is committed, federal and state officials must agree upon the
terms of the contract. A FEMA official (generally the regional director) and the
governor of the affected state (or the designated state representative) negotiate and
sign a “FEMA/State Agreement,” which specifies the cost-share arrangements for
public assistance, and binds both parties to mutual understandings. As part of the
agreement, the governor provides assurances that the cost-sharing requirements under
the Stafford Act will be met. Since the eruption of Mt. St. Helens in 1980, eligible
public assistance has generally been provided by federal, state, and local
governments. The federal government generally contributes 75% of eligible costs;
state and local government, 25%. Eligible costs are those associated with the repair
of public or nonprofit structures, debris removal, and essential assistance to save lives
and protect property.
19
The President may waive, and has waived, some or all of the cost-sharing
required for public assistance after particularly destructive catastrophes. The match
20
requirement for human services (which the Stafford Act sets at 25% of eligible costs)
cannot be waived, except for insular areas.21 As of August 28, 1997, according to
1 7 Under the Stafford Act, the District of Columbia and the insular areas are defined
as states.
18 For more information on the declaration process see: U.S. General Accounting
Office, Disaster Assistance, Information on Declarations for Urban and Rural Areas, GAO
report RCED-95-242 (Washington: Sept. 1995), p. 48.
19 See attachment to FEMA/State Agreement dated May 23, 1980 in Lacy E. Suiter,
letter to Daniel P. Mulhollan, Director of CRS, Oct. 2, 1997, Government Division files
maintained by the author. Much of the information on cost-share waivers is contained in
this letter and its attachments. Hereafter cited as Lacy Suiter Letter to CRS.
2 0 The Stafford Act, as amended in 1988 (P.L. 100-707), specifies that the minimum
federal share of public assistance for eligible activities “shall be not less than 75 percent of
the eligible cost of such assistance.” See Sections 403(b) and (c)(4), 406(b), 407(d). For
emergency declarations, “the federal share for assistance provided under this title shall be
equal to not less than 75 percent of the eligible costs.” See Section 503(a), 42 U.S.C. 5193.
21 “The administering authority of any department or agency, in its discretion, may (i)
waive any requirement for matching funds otherwise required by law to be provided by the
(continued...)

CRS-15
FEMA, waivers had been issued in 32 disaster declarations since 1985. Information
on these waivers, including the additional federal cost incurred for granting the
waivers, is provided below in Table 4.
For most disasters, a threshold of $64 per capita (statewide) has been used to
determine when a waiver may be granted. That is, if the damages from a declared
disaster in a state exceed $64 multiplied by the entire state population, a waiver has
been considered. Once that threshold has been reached, FEMA has adjusted the cost-
share requirements as noted in Table 4.
For the Midwest floods of 1993, however, FEMA used a different criterion.
After those floods FEMA “determined that when the total estimated damage [public
and private] is greater than 0.1 percent of the country’s gross domestic product, a
cost-share was warranted.” An exception was als
22
o made for the state of Minnesota
after flooding occurred (see contract #1175 in Table 4) “even though the state did not
attain the $64 per capita threshold.”
23
While the use of different thresholds has evoked little discussion, Congress may
wish to examine how FEMA has exercised its discretion to set thresholds. The issue
of cost share adjustments is addressed, to some degree, in S. 1007 and H.R. 2446.
The bills would amend section 406 of the Stafford Act by allowing reimbursement
of “up to 90%” of net eligible costs “in the aftermath of major disasters which cause
catastrophic losses.” The bills do not define such losses. The bills also would
encourage hazard mitigation efforts. The cost share would increase “up to 90%” for
state and local governments that implement hazard mitigation projects. On the other
hand, the bills would reduce federal assistance to as little as 50% for states and
localities that do not improve claims processing associated with this assistance.
Regulatory changes are also in process. FEMA is drafting regulations “to raise the
$64 threshold to current dollars.”24
21(...continued)
Insular Area involved. . . .” (48 U.S.C. 1469a(d))
2 2 Lacy Suiter Letter to CRS, p. 2. According to one newswire report, the use of the
$64 threshold evoked considerable outcry from state officials. See: Associated Press,
“Governors Unhappy with Flood Aid Formula,” Chicago Tribune, Sept. 3, 1993, p. 6.
23 Ibid.
24 Ibid.

CRS-16
Table 4. Major Disaster Declarations with Cost Share Adjustments, November 1985 - August 1997
(by calendar year of declaration, current dollars)
Jurisdiction
Contract
Year
Type of disaster
Federal/state cost share adjustmentsa
Additional cost
West Virginia
#753
1985
storms, flooding
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 100%
$21,772,268
U.S. Virgin Islands
#841
1989
Hurricane Hugo
IFG & PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 100%
$38,362,728
Puerto Rico
#842
1989
Hurricane Hugo
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 100%
$11,194,908
South Carolina
#843
1989
Hurricane Hugo
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 100%
$50,563,436
American Samoa
#855
1990
Hurricane Ofa
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 90/10
$52,202
Republic of Palau
#882
1990
Typhoon Mike
IFG - 100%; PA - 90/10
$106,718
Marshall Islands
#925
1992
Typhoon Zelda
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 90/10
$237,128
American Samoa
#927
1992
Hurricane Val
IFG - 100%; PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 90/10
$5,015,800
Marshall Islands
#932
1992
Tropical Storm Axel
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 90/10
$193,470
Florida
#955
1992
Hurricane Andrew
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 100%
$151,655,185
Louisiana
#956
1992
Hurricane Andrew
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 100%
$10,895,067
Guam
#957
1992
Typhoon Omar
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 95/5
$4,630,696
Hawaii
#961
1992
Hurricane Iniki
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 100%
$34,359,427
Marshall Islands
#971
1993
Typhoon Gay
PA - 75/25 up to $10 per capita; then 90/10
$50,748
Minnesota
#993
1993
Midwest floods
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$4,687,500
Wisconsin
#994
1993
Midwest floods
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$3,262,500
Missouri
#995
1993
Midwest floods
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$20,724,068

CRS-17
Jurisdiction
Contract
Year
Type of disaster
Federal/state cost share adjustmentsa
Additional cost
Iowa
#996
1993
Midwest floods
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$17,277,527
Illinois
#997
1993
Midwest floods
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$20,010,000
Nebraska
#998
1993
Midwest floods
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$8,403,795
South Dakota
#999
1993
Midwest floods
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$1,627,604
Kansas
#1000
1993
Midwest floods
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$7,572,296
North Dakota
#1001
1993
Midwest floods
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$1,277,550
California
#1008
1994
Northridge earthquake
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$811,143,999
Georgia
#1033
1994
Tropical Storm Alberto
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA costs
$54,073,035
Alaska
#1039
1994
storms and flooding
PA - 85/15
$5,208,659
Virgin Islands
#1067
1995
Hurricane Marilyn
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other grants
$19,695,000
North Carolina
#1134
1996
Hurricane Fran
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA grants
$40,800,000
Puerto Rico
#1136
1996
Hurricane Fran
EA - 100%; 90/10 all other PA grants
$8,662,500
South Dakota
#1173
1997
flooding, storms, rain, ice
EA - 100%; PA - 75/25 other PA grants, but see noteb
$2,950,000
North Dakota
#1174
1997
flooding, storms, rain, ice
EA - 100%; PA - 90/10 other PA grants, but see noteb
$25,950,000
Minnesota
#1175
1997
flooding, storms, rain, ice
EA - 100%; PA - 90/10 other PA grants (6 counties), see noteb
$29,700,000
Federal costs
$1,412,115,814
Source: FEMA/State Agreement; May 23, 1980, Lacy Suiter Letter to CRS, Oct. 2, 1997.
PA (public assistance) - Section 406, 42 U.S.C. 5172; IFG (i
a
ndividual and family grants) - Section 411, 42 U.S.C. 5178 [unless otherwise noted, all IFG cost shares
are 75/25]; EA (essential assistance) - Section 403, 42 U.S.C. 5170b.
Public assistance for debris removal and protective measures provided at 100% of eligible costs.
b

CRS-18
Funding
Funds are appropriated for Stafford Act assistance on a “no-year” basis; that
is, the funds remain available indefinitely and do not have to be spent in any given
fiscal year. Table 5 identifies requested appropriations and outlays from the fund.
The balance in the fund fluctuates continually as contracts between FEMA and
grantees are paid. At the end of calendar year 1997, $3.8 billion was available in the
Fund. According to one FEMA budget officer, as of February 5, 1998, the agency
projected that roughly $980 million would remain in the Fund through FY1998
assuming that no significant new costs would be incurred. According to one news
25
source, additional FY1998 supplemental appropriations totaling $641.6 million
disaster relief is being considered in light of the flooding in California and the ice
storm that affected Maine in February, 1998.26
During debate on the FY1997 and FY1998 appropriations for FEMA, the
Senate urged FEMA to take action to reduce disaster relief costs. In the debate on
the FY1998 appropriations, the Senate Appropriations Committee reported that
members continue “to be deeply troubled by the escalating cost of FEMA disaster
relief . . . [and] there remains little accountability for expenditures, inadequate
financial controls, and far too much awarded to low-priority projects such as the
refurbishment of golf courses and stadiums.” The full Senate-approved languag
27
e
in S. 1034, prohibiting the expenditure of FEMA disaster relief funds for certain
projects, is as follows:
Provided, That none of the funds appropriated for the Federal Emergency
Management Agency may be used to perform repair, replacement,
reconstruction, or restoration activities with respect to (1) trees and other
natural features belonging to State and local governments that are located
within parks and recreational facilities, as well as on the grounds of other
publicly-owned property; (2) parks, recreational areas, marinas, golf
courses, stadiums, arenas or other similar facilities which generate any
portion of their operational revenue through user fees, rents, admission
charges, or similar fees; or (3) beaches.
Conferees deleted this provision from the final text of the legislation, but noted that
they “support efforts to rein in disaster relief expenditures ... [and] urge the
committees of jurisdiction to take swift action to consider the proposed Stafford Act
25 Telephone conversation with budget office, Feb. 5, 1998.
26 National Journal's CongressDaily, Issue dates: February 23, and March 4, 1998. For
information on the FY1998 supplemental see: U.S. Library of Congress, Congressional
Research Service, Supplemental Appropriations and Rescissions for FY1998, by Larry
Nowels, Coordinator, CRS Report 98-123 F (Washington: Feb. 13, 1998), p. 12.
2 7 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Appropriations, Departments of Veterans
Affairs and Housing and Urban Development, and Independent Agencies Appropriations
Bill, 1998, report to accompany S. 1034, 105 Cong
th
., 1 sess., S. Rept. 105-53 (Washington:
st
GPO, 1997), p. 73.

CRS-19
amendments, including holding hearings at the earliest possible time.” Th
28
e
President signed H.R. 2158 into law (P.L. 105-65) on October 27, 1997.
Options to reduce federal disaster relief expenditures have been considered
by Congress for years. During the 103rd Congress, both the House and Senate
established bipartisan task forces to collect information and consider alternatives on
federal disaster relief costs. The House Bipartisan Task Force on Disasters
completed a report that contained a range of recommendations on sharing and
reducing disaster costs. The Senate published a report that provided relativel
29
y
comprehensive historical information for fiscal years 1977-1993 on federal disaster
expenditures and summarized existing policies. While both the House and Senate
30
reports established baseline information and listed possible alternatives, no
permanent legislation resulted during the 103rd or the 104th Congresses.
In 1996, the General Accounting Office reviewed the Stafford Act public
assistance program and recommended that FEMA’s criteria be clarified and that
auditing procedures be improved. The report also included recommendations
provided by FEMA’s regional offices and state emergency management officials.31
FEMA has begun action on one aspect of cost control, a determination of the
conformance of projects with building code standards. The point of contention is
whether eligible costs should be based on codes adopted by communities on, or
before, the disaster declaration date. The intent is to clarify Stafford Act language
32
(42 U.S.C. 5172(e)(1)) that limits federal costs to reconstructing a facility pursuant
to “current” building codes and standards. According to a FEMA official, the final
rule is expected to be published in 1998. This issue is also addressed in the
legislation pending before the 105 Congress.
th
33
28 U.S. Congress, Conference Committees, 1997, Departments of Veterans Affairs and
Housing and Urban Development, and Independent Agencies Appropriations Bill, 1998,
conference report to accompany H.R. 2158, H.Rept. 105-297, 105th Cong., 1 sess
st
.
(Washington: GPO, 1997).
2 9 U.S. Congress, House Bipartisan Task Force on Disasters, Report, (Washington:
Dec. 14, 1994), p. 23.
3 0 Senate Bipartisan Task Force on Funding Disaster Relief, Federal Disaster
Assistance, pp. 5-15.
3 1 U.S. General Accounting Office, Disaster Assistance: Improvements Needed in
Determining Eligibility for Public Assistance, GAO report RCED-96-113 (Washington: May
23, 1996), p. 68.
32 U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency, “Disaster Assistance; Restoration of
Damaged Facilities,” Federal Register, vol. 61, Oct. 25, 1996, pp. 55262-63.
33 Section 7(d) of S. 1007 and section 7(4) of H.R. 2446.

CRS-20
Table 5. Disaster Relief Fund: Requests, Appropriations, and Outlays, FY1974-FY1998
(thousands of dollars)
Appropriations
a
Total
Outlays
FY
Request
Original
Supplemental
Nominal $
Constant 1997 $
Nominal $
Constant 1997 $
1974
$100,000
$200,000
$232,600
$432,600
$1,411,419
$250,085
$815,938
1975
$100,000
$150,000
$50,000
$200,000
$580,552
$205,858
$597,556
1976
$187,500
$187,500
$0
$187,500
$505,255
$362,458
$976,712
1977
$100,000
$100,000
$200,000
$300,000
$751,315
$294,016
$736,329
1978
$150,000
$115,000
$300,000
$415,000
$972,352
$461,007
$1,080,148
1979
$200,000
$200,000
$194,000
$394,000
$854,849
$276,992
$600,981
1980
$193,600
$193,600
$870,000
$1,063,600
$2,080,595
$573,760
$1,122,379
1981
$375,570
$358,449
$0
$358,449
$633,638
$400,590
$708,132
1982
$400,000
$301,694
$0
$301,694
$498,256
$115,439
$190,651
1983
$325,000
$130,000
$0
$130,000
$203,954
$201,905
$316,763
1984
$0
$0
$0
$0
$0
$243,014
$365,490
1985
$100,000
$100,000
$0
$100,000
$144,363
$191,683
$276,719
1986
$194,000
$100,000
$250,000
b$350,000
$491,228
$335,444
$470,799
1987
$100,000
$120,000
$0
c
$120,000
$161,921
$219,112
$295,658
1988
$125,000
$120,000
$0
d$120,000
$156,883
$186,901
$244,347
1989
$200,000
$100,000
$1,108,000
e
$1,208,000
$1,532,217
$140,316
$177,976
1990
$270,000
$98,450
$1,150,000
$1,248,450
f
$1,514,925
$1,332,837
$1,617,324
1991
$270,000
$0
$0
$0
$0
$551,795
$643,868

CRS-21
Appropriations
a
Total
Outlays
FY
Request
Original
Supplemental
Nominal $
Constant 1997 $
Nominal $
Constant 1997 $
1992
$184,459
g
$185,000
$4,136,000
h$4,321,000
$4,940,544
$902,175
$1,031,529
1993
$292,095
$292,095
i
$2,000,000
j$2,292,095
$2,556,145
$2,276,216
$2,538,436
1994
$1,154,000
k
$292,000
$4,709,000
l
$5,001,000
$5,457,819
$3,743,210
$4,085,136
1995
$320,000
$320,000
m$3,275,000
$3,595,000
$3,805,844
$2,116,000
$2,240,102
1996
$320,000
$222,000
m$2,275,000
n$2,497,000
$2,560,500
$2,232,000
$2,288,761
1997
$320,000
o$1,320,000
o$3,300,000
$4,620,000
$4,064,039
$2,551,000
p$2,244,018
1998
$2,708,000
$320
0
o$
$320
$280
p$3,252,000
p$2,842,657
1999
$2,566,230
NA
NA
NA
NA
p$2,642,000
p $2,252,344
Total
$11,255,454
$5,206,108
$24,049,600
$29,255,708
$35,878,894
$26,057,813
$30,760,751
Source: U.S. President Annual Budget Documents, appropriations legislation.
a Administration request column generally represents first budget request submitted each year by the administration and does not include amended requests or supplemental
requests. However, note footnotes for 1992 and 1994. Total appropriations column does not include rescissions unless they have been incorporated in
appropriations acts. Includes total amount appropriated regardless of emergency requirement designation under Budget Enforcement Act.
According to FEMA, in FY1986 a sequester of $4.3 million was applied.
b
c In February 1987, a total of $57,475,000 was rescinded and transferred from the Disaster Relief Fund to the Emergency Food and Shelter Program account (P.L. 100-6).
That amount was returned to the Disaster Relief Fund that same year in supplemental appropriations legislation enacted in July 1987 (P.L. 100-71).
Public Law 100-202, the Continuing Appropriations Act for Fiscal Year 1988, appropriated $120 million for disaster relief. According
d
to information provided by FEMA,
the original appropriation for that fiscal year was $125 million, but $5 million was transferred, pursuant to instructions, to the Department of Labor for “low
income agriculture workers.”
e Funds included in P.L. 101-100, a continuing appropriations bill enacted after Hurricane Hugo struck in September 1989. According to FEMA, this amount was “referred
to as a <supplemental’ but was an increase in the original appropriation during a continuing resolution.”
P.L. 101-130, enacted after the Loma Prieta earthquake, appropriated
f
$1.1 billion. In addition, $50 million was appropriated in P.L. 101-302, dire emergency supplemental
appropriations legislation. Also, according to FEMA, total appropriation includes $2.5 million transfer from President’s Unanticipated Needs Fund.

Does not include budget amendment of $90 million submitted by the administration after action taken by House Appropriations Committee.
g
h Includes $185 million original appropriation; $943 million dire emergency supplemental in P.L. 102-229, enacted in the fall of 1991 after Hurricane Bob; $300 million
after the Los Angeles riots and flooding in Chicago (spring of 1992) in P.L. 102-302; and $2.893 billion in P.L. 102-368 after Hurricanes Andrew and Iniki,
Typhoon Omar, and other disasters.
Of the total appropriated, no more than $95,000 was permitted to be transferred to FEMA’s direct loan account for administrative expenses and subsidies.
i
Includes $2 billion supplemental approved after the Midwest floods of 1993 (P.L. 103-75).
j
k The original FY1994 budget request was $292 million. On July 29, 1993, a supplemental request of $862 million was sent by the President to Congress. The message
accompanying the request for the supplemental funds noted: “This proposal would provide additional funds for FEMA’s Disaster Relief Fund to cover the
projected unfunded emergency requirements of disasters already declared, and expected to be declared, by September 30, 1993.”
Supplemental appropriation enacted following the Northridge earthquake in Los Angeles (P.L. 103-211).
l
Additional supplemental appropriation for Northridge earthquake costs
m
(P.L. 104-19), with half ($3.275 billion) appropriated to a contingency fund for FY1996. However,
$1 billion of the contingency fund was rescinded in the FY1996 omnibus appropriations legislation, P.L. 104-134. Note that in that same legislation another $7
million was also appropriated to other FEMA accounts for costs associated with the bombing of the federal building in Oklahoma City.
The FY1998 budget appendix indicates a transfer of $104 million from the fund in FY1996.
n
In the FY1997 appropriations act (P.L. 104-204), $1 billion rescinded in FY1996 money (P.L. 104-134) was restored, and $320 million in new funds was appropriated
o
.
Supplemental appropriations of $3.3 billion were approved in P.L. 105-18 after flooding in the Dakotas and Minnesota and storms in other states were declared
major disasters. The legislation specified, however, that of the total, $2.3 billion was to be available in FY1998 only when FEMA submitted a cost control report
to Congress. This requirement was met, and the funding was made available in FY1998.
The F
p
Y1999 request consists of $307,745,000 for the Disaster Relief Fund and an additional $2,258,485,000 to be available when the President and the Congress designate
the funds as an emergency requirement under the Balanced Budget Act of 1985, as amended. According to a FEMA budget officer contacted Feb. 5, 1998, the
Disaster Relief Fund contained $3.8 billion in unobligated funds at year-end, CY1997. As of that date, FEMA estimates (assuming no significant additional
disaster costs are incurred during the current fiscal year) that roughly $980 million will be available in the Fund at the end of FY1998.
Current estimates.
q

CRS-23
Appendix A. Significant Federal Disaster
Relief Programs
Agency
Program
Summary of Benefits
Department of Agriculture
Noninsured Assistance Program
Direct payments for noninsurable
producers who suffer significant
losses

Federal Crop Insurance Program
Program is designed to protect crop
producers from unavoidable disasters
Emergency Conservation
Program
Grants for rehabilitating farmland
damaged by disasters
FSA Emergency Disaster Loans
Loans to help farmers repair or

replace property and to assist in
meeting operational costs
Emergency Watershed
Grants and technical assistance to
Protection
protect lives and property in
watershed areas threatened by
disasters
Disaster Food Distribution
Provision of food commodities for
Program
mass feeding of victims
Food Stamp
Expedited food stamp assistance to
Program—Emergency Issuance
victims
Department of Defense
Humanitarian Assistance
Mass shelter, feeding, and care
Department of Energy
Radiological Emergency
Technical assistance after radioactive
Assistance
materials incidents
Department of Health and Human
Disaster Services to the Elderly
Reimbursements to states for
Services
assistance provided to the elderly (up
to $50,000 per state per disaster)
Department of Housing and Urban
Mortgage Insurance—Homes for
Insured loans for the purchase of
Development
Disaster Victims
single-family housing by disaster
victims
Department of the Interior
Fire Suppression and Emergency
Technical assistance to suppress fires
Rehabilitation of Indian Lands
on Indian lands and some
rehabilitation assistance
Department of Justice
Emergency Law Enforcement
Provides funds and technical
assistance to aid communities faced
with law enforcement emergencies
Department of Labor
Unemployment Assistance
Unemployment benefits or re-
employment assistance to victims
unemployed due to a disaster
Department of the Treasury
Tax Information and Education
Provision of tax-related information
to victims
Department of Transportation
Highway Construction,
Grants for the repair and
Emergency Relief
reconstruction of federal-aid
highways damaged by disasters
Department of Veterans Affairs
Adjustments to Federal Loans
Counseling and loan assistance for
property owners with veterans’ loans

CRS-24
Agency
Program
Summary of Benefits
Army Corps of Engineers
Flood Control Works and
Repair and rehabilitation of flood
Federal Emergency Management
Fire Suppression Assistance
Grants for firefighting assistance to
Agency
prevent a fire from becoming a major
disaster
Planning Grants
Grants provided to help states update
disaster preparedness plans
Debris Removal
Grants for the removal of debris from
public and private property
Emergency Protective Measures
Provision of emergency measures
(such as search and rescue,
protection of property from further
damage)
Public Transportation
Provision of emergency public
transportation services
Crisis Counseling Assistance
Provision of professional counseling
and Training
services to disaster victims
Temporary Housing
Provision of temporary housing
through grants, repair assistance, or
mobile homes
Cora Brown Fund Assistance
Grants for assistance not provided by
public or private relief agencies

CRS-25
Appendix B. Major Disaster and Emergency
Declarations and Number of States Affected, 1975-1997
Calendar year
Number of declarations
Number of Statesa
1975
7
7
1976
35
27
1977
52
37
1978
25
25
1979
42
33
1980
29
22
1981
15
13
1982
26
20
1983
22
15
1984
34
28
1985
27
19
1986
28
22
1987
24
20
1988
11
10
1989
31
24
1990
38
28
1991
43
31
1992
47
30
1993
53
40
1994
37
27
1995
33
24
1996
70
37
1997
40
27
a Represents the number of states (and territories) in which at least one disaster occurred during the
calendar year.
Source: FEMA.

CRS-26
Appendix C. FEMA Major Disaster Assistance, by State,
Calendar Years 1974-1997

CRS-27
Table C. FEMA Major Disaster Assistance, by State, 1974-1997
(dollars in thousands, constant 1997)
Median
allocation
Least costly incident in state
Most costly incident in state
State
No.
Total funding
to state
Type of disaster
Year
FEMA $
Type of disaster
Year
FEMA $
tornadoes, storms,
Alabama
25
$684,086
$7,174
flooding
1981
$723
Hurricane Frederic
1979
$407,897
Alaska
12
$162,031
$7,227
freeze
1974
$1,684
storms and flooding
1994
$77,911
Arizona
9
$272,435
$22,495
storms, wind, rain
1984
$1,158
flooding
1993
$129,184
Arkansas
20
$116,097
$3,431
storms and tornadoes
1980
$249
tornadoes
1997
$27,475
California
37
$9,889,415
$22,593
fire
1988
$810
Northridge earthquake
1994
$6,631,212
Colorado
4
$59,745
$11,973
storms and flooding
1982
$3,238
storms, flooding, landslides
1976
$32,562
Connecticut
8
$98,666
$8,546
storms and tornadoes
1979
$2,066
Hurricane Gloria
1985
$24,478
Delaware
4
$14,837
$3,503
storms and flooding
1992
$1,334
ice storms and flooding
1994
$6,497
District of Col.
3
$8,034
$3,056
blizzard
1996
$1,361
storms and winds
1989
$3,617
Florida
24
$2,367,829
$11,078
storms and flooding
1979
$820
Hurricane Andrew
1992
$1,924,526
Georgia
15
$529,314
$4,442
freeze
1977
$578
Tropical Storm Alberto
1994
$428,025
Hawaii
10
$341,899
$4,957
storms and flooding
1974
$196
Hurricane Iniki
1992
$284,871
Idaho
7
$165,695
$8,711
ice and flooding
1984
$347
Teton dam collapse
1976
$101,601
Illinois
25
$813,406
$8,536
tornadoes
1974
$452
storms and flooding
1993
$280,169
Indiana
15
$149,135
$5,685
tornadoes
1986
$16
tornadoes
1974
$37,142
Iowa
15
$357,213
$3,562
tornadoes, rain, wind
1988
$1,287
storms and flooding
1993
$281,217
Kansas
10
$135,822
$4,018
storms and flooding
1974
$951
flooding and storms
1993
$99,320
Kentucky
18
$464,452
$8,001
sewer explosion
1981
$146
storms and flooding
1977
$174,777
Louisiana
27
$525,612
$5,507
storms and tornadoes
1989
$816
Hurricane Andrew
1992
$169,680
Maine
13
$86,933
$3,856
flooding and ice jams
1994
$1,037
storms and flooding
1987
$20,331
Maryland *
10
$77,260
$4,448
Tropical Storm Fran
1996
$3,256
storms, tornadoes, flooding
1979
$22,411
Massachusetts
9
$268,276
$23,302
fire
1981
$4,015
flooding
1978
$86,522
Michigan
12
$159,637
$9,776
storms and flooding
1982
$192
storms and flooding
1986
$39,963
* Maryland received a major disaster declaration but no funding from FEMA for storms and flooding in 1985, according to data provided by FEMA May 1996.

CRS-28
Median
allocation
Least costly incident in state
Most costly incident in state
State
No.
Total funding
to state
Type of disaster
Year
FEMA $
Type of disaster
Year
FEMA $
Minnesota
19
$426,890
$10,289
flooding
1975
$486
flooding, storms, snowmelt
1997
$169,545
Mississippi
21
$332,405
$4,642
flooding
1997
$950
winter storm
1994
$78,441
Missouri
17
$475,290
$7,957
storms and tornadoes
1980
$268
storms and flooding
1993
$312,291
Montana
8
$43,659
$3,573
storms, flooding, ice jams
1996
$1,849
storms and flooding
1978
$13,520
Nebraska
14
$260,563
$8,917
storms and tornadoes
1984
$333
storms and flooding
1993
$68,586
Nevada
4
$39,088
$4,309
storms and flooding
1981
$330
flooding, mud/land slides
1996
$30,140
New Hampshire
9
$26,503
$2,601
high winds, tides, flooding
1978
$961
Fall n'easter rainstorm
1996
$6,245
New Jersey
10
$163,933
$7,859
ice
1976
$742
storm, high tides, rain
1992
$65,172
New Mexico
8
$19,288
$1,997
winter storm
1997
$33
flooding
1978
$5,536
New York
23
$664,633
$15,656
storms and flooding
1985
$564
storms and flooding
1996
$133,591
North Carolina
15
$687,020
$5,944
storms and flooding
1979
$557
Hurricane Fran
1996
$492,358
North Dakota
14
$408,644
$11,117
flooding
1982
$621
flooding, storms, rain, ice
1997
$233,912
Ohio
16
$211,851
$5,162
storms and flooding
1982
$692
tornadoes
1974
$59,938
Oklahoma
16
$147,905
$7,085
tornadoes and flooding
1983
$711
storms and flooding
1986
$27,017
Oregon
9
$129,575
$3,943
flooding
1995
$2,048
winds, storms, flooding
1996
$90,335
Pennsylvania
18
$816,426
$10,743
storms and flooding
1986
$1,377
storms and flooding
1997
$326,103
Rhode Island
4
$23,930
$5,201
snow and ice
1978
$209
Hurricane Bob
1991
$13,319
South Carolina
4
$510,377
$6,095
Hurricane Fran
1996
$4,183
Hurricane Hugo
1989
$494,004
South Dakota
11
$159,778
$6,866
tornadoes and flooding
1992
$1,341
flooding, storms, rain, ice
1997
$48,447
Tennessee
17
$170,683
$6,213
storms and flooding
1982
$1,285
winter storm and flooding
1994
$68,008
Texas
40
$691,528
$4,581
tornadoes
1984
$16
storms and flooding
1994
$180,433
Utah
4
$83,683
$10,924
storms and flooding
1986
$1,232
storms, landslides, flooding
1983
$60,603
Vermont
11
$58,256
$4,042
ice storms, rain, flooding
1998
$1,019
storms, winds, flooding
1976
$22,100
Virginia
16
$255,952
$8,792
storms, tornadoes
1993
$286
storms and flooding
1977
$71,400
Washington
22
$466,083
$8,169
landslides and flooding
1986
$376
winds, storms, flooding
1996
$117,926
West Virginia
14
$417,047
$13,067
storms and flooding
1974
$84
storms, landslides, flooding
1985
$165,611
Wisconsin
17
$173,847
$3,031
tornadoes
1974
$357
storms, tornadoes, floods
1993
$78,773
Wyoming
3
$7,814
$3,006
storms and tornadoes
1979
$1,015
storms, flooding, mudslides
1978
$3,794
$256,204,82
State total
716
0

CRS-29
Median
allocation
Least costly incident in state
Most costly incident in state
State
No.
Total funding
to state
Type of disaster
Year
FEMA $
Type of disaster
Year
FEMA $
Insular areas
Am. Samoa
6
$175,549
$6,399
flooding and landslides
1979
$669
Hurricane Val
1991
$115,264
Guam
6
$385,189
$41,987
Typhoon Roy
1988
$3,521
Super Typhoon Paka
1997
$200,517
Marianas
Islands
9
$54,741
$3,367
Typhoon Lynn
1987
$425
Typhoon Kim
1986
$18,128
Marshall
Islands
9
$40,258
$4,368
fire
1987
$241
seawaves and flooding
1979
$12,572
Micronesia
7
$63,362
$2,195
Typhoon Axel
1992
$1,005
Typhoon Owen
1990
$31,813
Pacific Islands
2
$11,536
$5,768
Typhoon Marie
1996
$2,360
Typhoon Pamela
1996
$9,176
Palau
1
$7,818
NA
Typhoon Mike
1990
$7,818
NA
Puerto Rico
11
$1,626,438
$82,330
storms and flooding
1986
$2,405
Hurricane Hugo
1989
$687,488
Virgin Islands
7
$922,756
$5,000
Tropical Storm Klaus
1984
$2,128
Hurricane Marilyn
1995
$484,698
Subtotal
58
$3,287,647
Grand total
774 $28,908,129
Source: Disaster funding information through Dec. 31, 1997, provided by the Office of Congressional Relations, FEMA, Feb. 1998.
Constant dollar calculations based on quarterly data on chain weighted price indexes for state and local governments (total purchases consumption
and investment) obtained from U.S. Dept. Of Commerce web site.

CRS-30
Appendix D: FEMA Organization Chart
Office of the
Office of Inspector General
Director
James Lee Witt
Office of Congressional
Deputy Director
Office of Human Resources Management
and Legislative Affairs
Chief of Staff
Office of Emergency Information
Office of Equal Rights
and Media Affairs
Office of Policy and Regional Operations
Office of Financial Management
Office of National Security Coordination
Office of General Counsel
Response
Information &
Federal
United States
Regional
Mitigation
and
Technical
Insurance
Fire
Offices
Directorate
Recovery
Services
Administration
Administration
Regions I - X
Directorate
Directorate
Preparedness,
Operations
Training, &
Support
Exercises
Directorate
Directorate