Europe: Fact Sheet on Parliamentary and Presidential Elections

Table 1. European Parliamentary and Presidential Elections

Source: Created by CRS, using data from the U.S. Department of State, European Council, Central Intelligence Agency's (CIA's) World Factbook, International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES) Election Guide, Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), and other news sources.

Notes: Table is current as of August 13, 2025. Europe is defined as the 50 countries (excluding the Holy See) under the portfolio of the U.S. Department of State's Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs. N/A means nonapplicable. The "last election/runoff" column may include more than one date, as parliamentary and/or presidential elections may often occur in two-rounds with the top two candidates from an initial election advancing to a runoff election if no candidate receives a majority. Unless a country sets a specific election day, dates in the "next election" column are calculated based on the dates of the most recent election and length of the term. Elections that are expected to occur by a specific month/year are listed in the table according to that month/year.

a. Although dates are included for elections that the governments of Azerbaijan, Belarus, and the Russian Federation have announced, these three governments do not hold elections that international observers consider to be free or fair. Azerbaijan, Belarus, and Russia are considered "authoritarian" governments according to Freedom House's Freedom in the World 2024. See Freedom in the World 2024 country scores at https://freedomhouse.org/countries/freedom-world/scores.

b. Azerbaijan originally had presidential and parliamentary elections scheduled for 2025. In December 2023, President Ilham Aliyev called for a snap presidential election for February 7, 2024. Parliamentary elections were later called for September 1, 2024.

c. On October 27, 2024, Bulgaria held its seventh parliamentary election since April 2021. Its last parliamentary election was held four months earlier, on June 9, 2024. However, government talks following the October 2024 election appear to have failed, paving the way for possible parliamentary elections in 2025.

d. A presidential election in Croatia was to occur by February 2025. In November 2024, the Croatian prime minister called for an early election to be held on December 29, 2024. A second round occurred on January 12, 2025.

e. France was due to hold a parliamentary election by June 2027. However, following elections to the European Parliament on June 9, 2024, French President Emmanuel Macron dissolved France's parliament and announced early parliamentary elections, held in two rounds on June 30 and July 7, 2024.

f. Georgia's president and opposition parties contested the October 2024 election results and U.S. and European leaders called upon the Georgian government to address concerns about the integrity of the elections. For more information see CRS Insight IN12456, Georgia: Incumbent Georgian Dream Claims Victory in Disputed Parliamentary Elections, by Cory Welt.

g. In Georgia, constitutional amendments in 2017 changed the presidential election to an indirect election. The 2018 presidential election in Georgia was the last in which the president was directly elected. In December 2024, an electoral college composed of Members of Parliament and local government representatives elected a new president.

h. Parliamentary elections in Germany were to occur by September 2025. However, following the collapse of the German Chancellor's three-party coalition in November 2024, early parliamentary elections were called for February 23, 2025.

i. Parliamentary elections in Iceland were due to occur in 2025. However, in October 2024, Iceland's Prime Minister announced the collapse of the coalition government, and called for the parliamentary election to be held on November 30, 2024.

j. Parliamentary elections in Ireland were due to occur in 2025. However, parliamentary elections were held on November 29, 2024, called for by the Irish Prime Minister in early November 2024.

k. Parliamentary elections in the Netherlands were due to occur in 2027. However, in June 2025, snap elections were called for October 29, 2025, after the Party for Freedom withdrew from the coalition government amid disagreements over asylum policy.

l. Parliamentary elections in Portugal were due to occur in 2028. However, Portugal's president announced early elections for May 18, 2025, the country's third election in about three years. The snap elections were called after the ruling coalition lost a vote of confidence.

m. Romania held a presidential election on November 24, 2024, with a second round scheduled for December 8, 2024. However, on December 6, 2024, the Constitutional Court of Romania annulled the results of the first round of the election, following accusations of Russian interference. In January 2025, Romania's coalition government announced that a two-round presidential election would be held on May 4 and May 18, 2025. For more information, see CRS Report R48440, Romania: Background and U.S. Relations, by Sarah E. Garding.

n. Each canton in Switzerland organizes its elections for the Council of States. The first round of the election to the Swiss Council of States is held at the same time as elections to the National Council in all cantons, with one exception. The canton of Appenzell Innerrhoden holds its elections on the last Sunday in April. Depending on the results of the election, a second round or runoff election may be required in some cantons.

o. On April 16, 2017, a constitutional referendum was held on amending the Turkish Constitution, including abolishing the office of the prime minister and replacing the country's existing parliamentary system with a presidential system. The referendum passed. On June 24, 2018, Turkey held a snap election, reelecting President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. He was again reelected in a two-round contest in May 2023. U.S. and European Union officials have expressed a number of concerns about authoritarian governance and erosion of rule of law and civil liberties in Turkey. See State Department, Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 2023, Turkey; European Commission, Türkiye 2023 Report, November 8, 2023, and the European Commission, Türkiye Report 2024. For more information, see CRS Report R44000, Turkey (Türkiye): Major Issues and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti and Clayton Thomas. In March 2024 local elections, Erdoğan's party came out with control over fewer mayoralties and failed to recapture the Istanbul and Ankara mayoralties. The main opposition Republican People's Party won the greatest number of nationwide votes, marking the first time another party received more votes in an election than Erdoğan's party.

p. "In late 2021, President Erdogan directed the use of "Türkiye" (the country's name in Turkish) in place of "Turkey" or other equivalents (e.g., the German "Türkei," the French "Turquie") in Turkish government documents and communications. In June 2022, the United Nations accepted the Turkish request to change the country's name at the body to "Türkiye." In January 2023, the State Department spokesperson said that the department would use the revised spelling "in most formal diplomatic and bilateral contexts" where appropriate. The U.S. Board on Geographic Names retained both "Turkey" and "Republic of Turkey" as conventional names, and the spokesperson said that the State Department could use those names if it is in furtherance of broader public understanding. State Department Press Briefing, January 5, 2023." See CRS Report R41368, Turkey (Türkiye): Background and U.S. Relations, by Jim Zanotti and Clayton Thomas.

q. Ukraine was originally scheduled to hold a presidential election by March 2024 (parliamentary elections were to occur by October 2023). However, Ukrainian law does not allow elections to occur under martial law, which has been in effect since the February 24, 2022, Russian invasion.