This report constitutes a guide to a series of two-page "primers" examining the various programs and policies that comprise periodic omnibus legislation on farm and food policy, commonly known as "the farm bill." The President signed the 2018 farm bill, the Agriculture Improvement Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-334), into law on December 20, 2018. The 2018 farm bill generally authorizes programs for five years. Congress enacted a one-year extension in November 2023 for 2024 (P.L. 118-22, Division B, §102) and a second one-year extension in December 2024 to cover FY2025 and the 2025 crop year (P.L. 118-158, Division D). Many farm bill programs will expire in 2025 unless Congress extends their authorization through a new farm bill or other legislation.
The 2018 farm bill authorized a broad array of programs and policies across 12 titles that define much of the federal government's role in the agricultural sector. It also established the parameters for key domestic and foreign nutrition assistance programs. The 2018 farm bill authorizes a wide range of agriculture and food programs and policies that address commodity support; conservation; trade; foreign and domestic nutrition assistance; farm credit and rural development; research, extension, and education; forestry; energy; horticulture; crop insurance; and livestock-related matters, among others
There are 23 primers summarized in this report and organized under descriptive headings rather than by farm bill titles to facilitate accessibility for those who are not familiar with the 2018 farm bill. The concept behind these primers is to provide relevant information on key programs and policy initiatives authorized by the 2018 farm bill in a concise format that serves as a quick reference resource for Members of Congress and congressional staff. To this end, the primers describe many of the leading programs and policies within the 2018 farm bill. They also identify some of the higher-profile policy issues that may arise as Congress engages in the process of writing a new farm bill and highlight some policy options that Congress could consider as it undertakes this task. The titles of the primers are hyperlinked for easy access.
The primers listed herein also identify CRS subject matter analysts and provide references to related CRS reports for those who want to explore a specific topic area within the 2018 farm bill in greater depth or who seek additional analysis on an individual program or policy. For an overview of the entire 2018 farm bill, see CRS Report R45525, The 2018 Farm Bill (P.L. 115-334): Summary and Side-by-Side Comparison. For a history of farm bill legislation, see CRS Report R45210, Farm Bills: Major Legislative Actions, 1965-2024. For a discussion of the consequences of farm bill expiration, see CRS Report R47659, Expiration of the 2018 Farm Bill and Extension for 2025. For analysis of the farm bill markup in 2024, see CRS Report R48167, The 2024 Farm Bill: H.R. 8467 Compared with Current Law.
This report summarizes the farm bill primers listed below. The headings of the summaries contain hyperlinks to the full CRS In Focus products.
This CRS In Focus provides an overview of the multiyear, omnibus legislation known as the farm bill. In particular, it describes the breadth of agriculture and nutrition policy that the farm bill authorizes while providing a brief history of the evolution of the farm bill to the present day. It further reviews estimated costs of the 2018 farm bill by title at the time of enactment and an updated estimate of the budget baseline for mandatory programs for a next farm bill. The House markup of a farm bill in 2024 is discussed in the context of current issues.
Congress may consider a new farm bill in 2025 because provisions authorized in the 2018 farm bill (P.L. 115-334) begin expiring at the end of FY2025. From a budgetary perspective, many farm bill programs are assumed to continue. This report discusses the two types of funding—mandatory spending and discretionary authorizations—and the implications of each for farm bill budgeting and program continuity. Farm bill programs have nearly $1.4 trillion of mandatory funding available for the next 10 years. The In Focus also addresses supplemental funding in recent years, which may influence policy expectations for a new farm bill.
In preparation for a next farm bill, Congress may consider a subset of 21 programs in the 2018 farm bill that do not have a budget baseline for funding beyond FY2024. This In Focus identifies these 21 programs, which received a total of $906 million of mandatory funding during the five years (FY2019-FY2023) of the 2018 farm bill and $177 million in FY2024 for the first one-year extension. The second one-year extension for FY2025 did not provide additional funding for these programs. Programs that receive mandatory funding do not require annual discretionary appropriations. Reauthorizing farm bill programs without baseline would have a positive score (cost) and therefore would likely need to be offset by reductions elsewhere.
Animal agriculture accounts for about half of the total value of U.S. agricultural products. The current highly pathogenic avian influenza outbreak illustrates how animal diseases can be costly to control, disrupt domestic supply and international trade of animal products, and affect human health. USDA's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is responsible for protecting and improving animal health in the United States. Congress provides APHIS approximately $400 million annually to administer several programs to prevent and respond to animal disease. This CRS In Focus describes those APHIS programs and identifies selected issues of potential interest to Congress.
The so-called federal "farm safety net" is a collection of programs administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) that provide risk protection and income support to farmers in the United States who experience natural disasters, adverse growing conditions, and/or low market prices. Farm safety net programs fall into three categories: the federal crop insurance program (FCIP), standing agricultural disaster programs, and agricultural commodity support programs. The FCIP and standing agricultural disaster programs are permanently authorized under various laws. The commodity support programs are authorized through the 2025 crop year.
The Price Loss Coverage (PLC) and the Agriculture Risk Coverage (ARC) programs provide income support to producers of certain eligible commodities. The amount of support varies by commodity and from year-to-year based on program enrollments and market conditions. These programs are authorized through the 2025 crop year. The 2018 farm bill reauthorized these programs with relatively minor changes that expanded support available to producers. This CRS In Focus addresses significant features of these programs and identifies selected issues that Congress could consider as it debates a next farm bill.
The Marketing Assistance Loan (MAL) program has been a significant feature of U.S. farm policy since the 1930s. The MAL program provides loans to farmers that are collateralized by eligible stored commodities and provides price support to borrowers when market prices drop below levels specified in statute. Congress has authorized the Loan Deficiency Payment (LDP) program since the 1980s. The LDP program provides payments to farmers eligible to receive price support under the MAL program. Farmers must meet eligibility requirements for these programs and cannot receive both MAL and LDP benefits for the same commodity. These programs are authorized through the 2025 crop year.
The United States is the world's third-largest cotton producer and the leading cotton exporter, accounting for nearly one-third of global trade in raw cotton. Between 2000 and 2020, U.S. cotton production decreased by more than 15%, and U.S. textile mill usage decreased by more than 80%. Title I of the 2018 farm bill reauthorized commodity support for domestic producers of cotton, including support that had been previously eliminated in the Agricultural Act of 2014 (2014 farm bill; P.L. 113-79). Titles I and XII of the 2018 farm bill reauthorized support for domestic users of cotton for various periods. Certain programs are authorized through the 2025 crop year. In addition, the Secretary of Agriculture has taken measures, outside of the farm bill programs, to support cotton producers.
The 2018 farm bill provides support to the dairy industry through a variety of programs. The Dairy Margin Coverage (DMC), enacted in the 2018 farm bill, is the primary program that provides income support to milk producers. The DMC allows milk producers to buy a guaranteed margin—calculated as the all milk price minus feed costs—for their milk production. Each year, participating dairy producers choose a margin coverage level and the share of their milk production history to cover. They receive DMC payments for months in which the margin is triggered based on USDA's calculation of the milk-feed margin. This program is authorized through December 31, 2025.
The federal crop insurance program (FCIP) helps make insurance coverage available to farmers from private sector insurers to help mitigate potential financial consequences of adverse growing and market conditions. USDA regulates the policies offered and subsidizes the premiums that farmers pay in order to encourage farmer participation in the program. Premium subsidies covered about 60% of the total premium on average for all policies sold in 2024. Since its inception in 1938, the FCIP has grown from an ancillary program with low participation to a central pillar of federal farm support, with more than 543 million acres and $192 billion in crop and livestock value insured in 2024. The FCIP is permanently authorized, but Congress has modified it in various ways in periodic farm bills.
A number of federal programs help agricultural producers recover from the effects of natural disasters, including federal crop insurance, the Noninsured Crop Disaster Assistance Program, livestock and fruit tree disaster programs, and emergency disaster loans. All programs are permanently authorized, and most receive "such sums as necessary" through mandatory spending authority. As such, these programs did not require reauthorization in the 2018 farm bill.
The conservation title of a farm bill generally contains a number of reauthorizations, amendments, and new programs that encourage farmers and ranchers to implement resource-conserving practices on private land. Starting in 1985, farm bills have addressed a broader range of topics as "conservation." Conservation programs administered by USDA can be grouped into the following categories based on similarities: working land programs, land retirement programs, easement programs, partnership programs, conservation compliance, and other overarching provisions.
The 2018 farm bill contains 12 titles that address agricultural and food programs and Title IX, the energy title. The 2018 farm bill was the fourth farm bill to contain an energy title. The energy title is primarily focused on support for renewable energy—particularly agriculture-related energy, energy efficiency, and bioproducts (e.g., cleaning supplies). This In Focus summarizes the 2018 farm bill energy title, including mandatory versus discretionary funding amounts, as a basis for informing discussions on a next farm bill while identifying issues that Congress could consider as part of that process.
Forest management generally, as well as forest research and forestry assistance, is often considered by the agriculture committees in Congress. Although most forestry programs are permanently authorized, forestry is often addressed in the periodic farm bills to reauthorize many agriculture programs. The 2018 farm bill included a separate forestry title, and this In Focus summarizes some of the forestry provisions addressed in the 2018 farm bill and related issues that Congress may debate as it considers a next farm bill.
The 2018 farm bill reauthorized and expanded funding for many of the existing USDA programs supporting fruits, vegetables, and other specialty crops while providing support for many locally sourced products (not limited to crops) and hemp cultivation. Support for these sectors is not limited to the horticulture title; it is also contained within other farm bill titles, covering a range of programs administered by USDA. This In Focus provides an overview of selected 2018 farm bill provisions and issues for a next farm bill related to specialty crops, organically produced and locally sourced products, and hemp.
The 2018 farm bill legalized hemp by removing hemp from the definition of marijuana in the Controlled Substances Act. It also directed USDA to create a framework to regulate hemp cultivation under federal law and facilitate commercial cultivation, processing, marketing, and sale of hemp and hemp-derived products. Other 2018 farm bill provisions made hemp producers eligible for federal crop insurance and agricultural research programs. A number of hemp stakeholders are advocating for additional changes via a next farm bill, such as relaxing some USDA regulatory requirements and reducing the Drug Enforcement Administration's role in regulating hemp.
Beginning farmers and ranchers—generally defined as having operated a farm or ranch for no more than 10 years—comprise a significant part of the U.S. agricultural sector. They contribute to rural and non-rural economies and are considered to be critical given ongoing concerns about the aging U.S. farm population, the "disappearing middle" (i.e., mid-sized farms both in terms of farm numbers and value of sales), and general trends toward increasing consolidation and fewer, larger farms. The 2018 farm bill reauthorized and expanded programs administered by USDA that support new farmers and ranchers. These programs targeted new farmers within specific farm demographic groups based on age, race, and gender, as well as socially disadvantaged (underserved) farmers and farmers who are military veterans.
In 2017, Native agricultural producers accounted for 2% of all U.S. producers. The 2018 farm bill (P.L. 115-334) expanded federal farm program support for Native agricultural producers and tribal communities. Congress further enhanced community and economic development for tribes in the Indian Community Economic Enhancement Act of 2020 (P.L. 116-261) and provided additional support for historically underserved agricultural producers, including Native producers, in the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 (P.L. 117-2).
The nutrition title of a farm bill typically reauthorizes a number of nutrition or domestic food assistance programs, including the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly the Food Stamp Program). These programs were reauthorized by the 2018 farm bill and extended by P.L. 118-22. They are authorized through September 30, 2025. In a subsequent farm bill's nutrition title, policymakers might revisit 2018 debates and decisions and consider new challenges and questions, including temporary changes made during the COVID-19 pandemic.
The research title addresses research, extension, and education at land-grant universities and other nonfederal institutions, as well as departmental policies, programs, and research within USDA. Most of the research title programs require annual discretionary appropriations; a few programs receive mandatory spending. This In Focus provides background information and discusses selected 2018 farm bill provisions and issues for a next farm bill related to agricultural research, extension, and education, including funding.
Aquaculture facilities that grow aquatic animal and plant species in controlled or selected environments are generally eligible for the same support from USDA that is available to all U.S. farmers, ranchers, and producers. The 2018 farm bill reauthorized and expanded provisions specifically related to USDA's aquaculture research and assistance programs. Aquaculture producers are also eligible for other USDA competitive grants available to all U.S. agricultural producers. Aquaculture stakeholders have identified a number of policy recommendations in support of the industry, some of which Congress could address in a next farm bill.
Omnibus farm bills are the major modern legislative vehicle for addressing many rural development issues. Since 1973, omnibus farm bills have included a rural development title, which has included USDA Rural Development programs focused on rural utility systems (i.e., water, waste disposal, electricity, and broadband), rural business, and rural housing. The USDA Rural Business-Cooperative Service, USDA Rural Utilities Service, and USDA Rural Housing Service administer these programs. Most USDA Rural Development programs rely on discretionary funding, which Congress authorizes in farm bills and funds through the annual appropriations process.
Congress has included provisions addressing rural broadband (i.e., high-speed internet access) in the rural development title of omnibus farm bills since 2002. The 2018 farm bill amended and reauthorized many of the rural broadband programs administered by USDA. This In Focus provides background information on USDA rural broadband programs and an overview of selected rural broadband provisions in the 2018 farm bill and identifies some issues that Congress could consider as it debates a next farm bill.
Agricultural exports are significant to farmers and the U.S. economy. With the productivity of U.S. agriculture growing faster than domestic demand, farmers and agriculturally oriented firms rely on export markets to sustain prices and revenue. The trade title of the 2018 farm bill (P.L. 115-334) authorizes programs to expand foreign markets for U.S. farmers and food manufacturers through export market development programs and export credit guarantee programs. These programs are authorized through FY2025.