Updated February 15, 2024
Russia’s War on Ukraine: U.S. Policy and the Role of Congress
On February 24, 2022, Russia launched a new war against
also has provided assistance for Ukraine’s energy,
Ukraine, a country Russia first invaded in 2014 and has
governance, and agriculture sectors, among others, and to
partially occupied for nearly a decade. The war is estimated
support the needs of Ukrainian refugees in other countries.
to have led to hundreds of thousands of casualties and the
current displacement of more than 10 million people as of
On February 13, 2024, the Senate passed the National
January 2024. Ukraine is continuing to wage defensive and
Security Act, 2024 (H.R. 815, as amended), by a vote of 70-
counteroffensive operations bolstered by extensive military
29. If enacted, Division A of the act would provide
assistance, mainly from the United States and Europe; since
approximately $60 billion for Ukraine-related activities out
mid-2023, warfighting has been largely attritional and has
of $95.3 billion in total funding. This amount includes at
focused on the seizure of individual towns and settlements
least $13.4 billion to replenish U.S. Department of Defense
or other localized objectives.
(DOD) equipment stocks that are to be transferred to
Ukraine, at least $13.8 billion in other security assistance to
“The General Assembly ... reaffirms its commitment
Ukraine, at least $7.85 billion in economic aid (including
to the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial
direct financial support) to the Ukrainian government, and
integrity of Ukraine [and] declares that the unlawful
additional funds for DOD and other agencies to support the
actions of the Russian Federation ... have no validity
U.S. response to the war.
under international law.”
U.N. General Assembly Resolution ES-11/4, Oct. 12, 2022
As of January 2024, EU institutions and member states had
made available an estimated $77 billion in assistance for
The United States, NATO, the European Union (EU) and
Ukraine since February 2022, including about $30 billion in
member states, and other partners regard the war against
security assistance. In February 2024, EU leaders approved
Ukraine as “unprovoked and unjustified.” The United
an additional $54 billion in assistance to Ukraine, to be
States, in coordination with the EU and others, has provided
disbursed over the 2024-2027 time period. The EU has
substantial assistance to Ukraine, has imposed a series of
allocated an additional $18 billion to provide for the needs
increasingly severe sanctions on Russia and its enablers,
of Ukrainian refugees in Europe; individual EU members
and has sought to promote accountability for Russian war
also have provided refugee assistance. Other countries,
crimes. To deter further aggression, the United States and
including the United Kingdom, Japan, Canada, and
NATO have increased their military presence in Europe. In
Norway, also have provided assistance to Ukraine.
the United States, policymakers and observers are debating
Sanctions
the scope and scale of assistance to Ukraine, the impact of
sanctions, and the implications of a protracted conflict.
The United States, the EU, and others also have responded
to Russia’s war on Ukraine with sanctions. Since F
Congress may consider additional actions and oversight
ebruary
with respect to these and related issues.
2022, the United States has imposed sanctions on more than
3,500 individuals and entities, including Russian President
Assistance to Ukraine
Vladimir Putin, other Russian political and economic elites,
Russia’s legislature, defense and technology firms, strategic
Congress enacted four supplemental appropriations laws for
FY2022 and FY2023 providing assistance to Ukraine and
state-owned companies, and facilitators of sanctions
countries affected by the war in Ukraine, as well as related
evasion. U.S. sanctions restrict Russia’s central bank from
funding. Of a total $113.4 billion in emergency
drawing on its dollar-denominated reserves, prohibit most
appropriations made available by these laws, Congress
major Russian banks from conducting transactions in U.S.
appropriated about $88.7 billion for assistance to Ukraine
dollars or with U.S. persons, and bar new U.S. investment
and other countries affected by the war. Of this amount,
in Russia. The United States has expanded export controls
affecting Russia’s access to sensitive or needed U.S.
about $48.7 billion was for security assistance, $30.1 billion
-origin
for economic assistance, and $9.9 billion for humanitarian
technologies; banned the import of energy, gold, diamonds
assistance. Another $23 billion was appropriated to support
and certain other goods from Russia; banned the export of
U.S. military operations in Europe and other U.S. agency
luxury goods and certain services to Russia; raised tariffs
responses to the war, including for sanctions enforcement
on many imports from Russia; and prohibited Russian use
and refugee and entrant assistance. About $1.7 billion was
of U.S. airspace and ports.
appropriated for other global assistance purposes.
In addition to executive branch actions, the 117th Congress
suspended normal trade relations with Russia and its ally
Since February 2022, for Ukraine specifically, the Biden
Belarus (P.L. 117-110), prohibited the import of Russian oil
Administration has committed $44.2 billion in security
and other energy products (P.L. 117-109), and established
assistance, $22.9 billion in direct financial assistance, and
sanctions on foreign persons who engage in gold
$2.3 billion in humanitarian assistance. The Administration
transactions with Russia (P.L. 117-263, §5590).
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Russia’s War on Ukraine: U.S. Policy and the Role of Congress
The United States and the EU have closely cooperated in
ability to seize frozen and immobilized Russian assets to
imposing sanctions on Russia. In December 2022, the
fund Ukraine reconstruction, including H.R. 4175 (ordered
United States joined the EU and others in setting a global
reported, as amended) and S. 2003 (reported, as amended).
price cap of $60 per barrel on Russian oil exports by
banning nationals from providing maritime transport
War Crimes Accountability
services for transactions above that price. Although the EU
In February 2023, the Biden Administration determined that
has not imposed sanctions on Russian natural gas imports,
“members of Russia’s forces and other Russian officials
Russia has reduced natural gas flows to Europe. The Biden
have committed crimes against humanity in Ukraine.”
Administration has sought to help the EU reduce its
Ukrainian authorities and others have accused Russian
dependence on Russian gas, including by boosting U.S.
forces of perpetrating indiscriminate and mass killings, rape
liquefied natural gas shipments to Europe.
and other forms of sexual violence, the intentional targeting
of civilians, and the forced “filtration” (interrogation and
By some metrics, Russia has weathered new sanctions
separation) of civilians and noncombatants—including
better than many anticipated. Russia’s economy, the 11th
children—from Russia-occupied territories in Ukraine. The
largest in the world in 2021, contracted by 2.1% in 2022
U.S. Department of Justice is working “in partnership with
and grew an estimated 2.3% in 2023. A number of factors
Ukraine and the international community ... to hold Russia
have buoyed the economy: nimble policy responses by
accountable for war crimes committed in its unjust
Russia’s central bank; increased oil exports to China, India,
invasion.” This includes cooperation with a Joint
and Turkey; imports of sanctioned items through
Investigative Team comprising Ukraine, six EU member
intermediaries; increased military spending; and
states, and the International Criminal Court, supported by
expropriation of foreign assets.
EU institutions. In December 2023, the Department of
Justice “filed the first ever charges under the U.S. war
Sanctions also have created challenges for Russia. Its
crimes statute against four Russia-affiliated military
financial sector has lost hundreds of billions of dollars, its
personnel” for crimes against a U.S. citizen in Ukraine.
military has difficulty procuring key components, many
Russian factories have suspended production because they
U.S. and NATO Force Posture in Europe
cannot access foreign-origin parts, and hundreds of
The United States has increased military deployments to
international companies have exited Russia. The
Europe and led a broader NATO effort to deter further
government also is facing fiscal pressures: government
Russian aggression and to defend NATO allies, particularly
revenues from energy exports fell in 2023, military
in Central and Eastern Europe. Congress has supported the
expenditures have increased, and Russia cannot borrow
enhanced U.S. force presence and U.S. leadership of NATO
from international capital markets. A military draft and
defense and deterrence measures. In the 117th Congress, the
emigration have created labor shortages, and nearly half of
Senate gave its advice and consent (Treaty Doc. 117-3) to
Russians report their salaries do not cover basic spending.
approve Finland’s and Sweden’s accession to NATO
(Finland became a NATO member in April 2023; Sweden’s
Seizures and Forfeitures
accession is pending).
Through the U.S. Department of Justice’s Task Force
Following Russia’s full-scale invasion of Ukraine in
KleptoCapture and the international Russian Elites, Proxies,
February 2022, the United States deployed or extended
and Oligarchs (REPO) Task Force, the Department of
about 20,000 additional armed forces to Europe, bringing
Justice and the Department of the Treasury are working “to
the total U.S. force posture in Europe, including
seize illicit Russian assets for the benefit of the people of
permanently stationed forces, to approximately 100,000
Ukraine, and to prosecute those who facilitate the evasion
of sanctions imposed on Russia.” In April 2023 Senate
military personnel. This includes rotational deployment of
up to two Brigade Combat Teams in Central and Eastern
testimony, Deputy Attorney General Lisa Monaco stated
Europe; deployment of about 10,000 troops to Poland,
that the Department of Justice had
including 800 soldiers deployed to a U.S.-led NATO
battlegroup; about 3,000 troops in Romania; and additional
seized, forfeited, or otherwise restrained over $500
naval and air assets in the region.
million in assets belonging to Russia’s oligarchs
and others who unlawfully supported the Kremlin’s
The increased U.S. military presence is part of an enhanced
war machine … We have indicted more than thirty
NATO defense and deterrence posture in the eastern part of
individuals and two corporate entities accused of
the alliance. Allied troops deployed to the region for the
sanctions evasion, export control violations, money
first time in NATO’s history after Russia’s 2014 invasion
laundering, and other crimes.
of Ukraine. Since February 2022, NATO has expanded its
FY2023 appropriations provide authority for the transfer of
military footprint in the region. According to NATO, about
proceeds of “covered forfeited property ... to provide
10,000 allied soldiers currently serve in multinational
assistance to Ukraine to remediate the harms of Russian
battlegroups in eight countries along NATO’s eastern flank.
aggression towards Ukraine” (P.L. 117-328, §1708). The
Cory Welt, Coordinator, Specialist in Russian and
Justice Department used this authority for the first time for
European Affairs
a $5.4 million forfeiture of funds belonging to a Russian
oligarch who has financed pro-Russian activities in Ukraine
Paul Belkin, Analyst in European Affairs
and who was indicted by the Department of Justice in April
Andrew S. Bowen, Analyst in Russian and European
2022 for sanctions evasion. Legislation has been introduced
Affairs
in the 118th Congress to broaden the Administration’s
https://crsreports.congress.gov

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Russia’s War on Ukraine: U.S. Policy and the Role of Congress

IF12277
Rebecca M. Nelson, Specialist in International Trade and
Finance


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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF12277 · VERSION 7 · UPDATED

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