Updated December 6, 2023
Belarus: An Overview
Belarus, located in eastern Europe, is a close ally of Russia.
prison for allegedly “conspiring to overthrow the
Alexander Lukashenko, an authoritarian leader, has served
government” and other charges.
as president of Belarus for almost 30 years. Lukashenko has
increased Belarus’s dependency on Russia since 2020,
Figure 1. Belarus at a Glance
when the Belarusian government launched a crackdown on
political opposition and civil society that human rights
monitors called “unprecedented” and “catastrophic.”
Lukashenko’s government has provided support to Russia’s
renewed invasion of Ukraine, including by allowing
Belarus to be used as a launchpad for the invasion in 2022.
The U.S. government and the European Union (EU) have
condemned Belarus’s support for Russia’s invasion of
Ukraine and the Lukashenko government’s crackdown on
dissent in Belarus, and they have imposed sanctions in
response. They have called for the Belarusian government
Sources: IMF; National Statistical Committee of Belarus.
to hold free and fair presidential elections. Congress has
Various civic activist initiatives arose in the aftermath of
passed legislation supporting democracy in Belarus.
the 2020 crackdown. Such initiatives included collecting
Political Background
information on human rights violations, organizing small-
scale protests, supporting those persecuted by the
The Lukashenko government’s 2020 crackdown followed
government, and conducting cyberattacks against
the rise of Belarus’s largest mass opposition movement
government institutions. Since Russia’s renewed invasion
since the country became independent in 1991 (Belarus
of Ukraine in 2022, some activists reportedly have sought
previously was part of the Soviet Union). The movement
to sabotage rail services in Belarus to hinder Russian
arose out of protests against seemingly widespread electoral
military efforts in Ukraine. Some opposition members have
fraud in a presidential election in which opposition
become volunteer fighters in Ukraine.
candidate Sviatlana Tsikhanouskaya mounted an
unexpectedly strong campaign against Lukashenko.
Belarusian authorities have tightened restrictions against the
Given Lukashenko’s authoritarian
exercise of human rights and freedoms. In 2021, the
rule, observers did not
government passed laws on mass gatherings, mass media,
expect Tsikhanouskaya to win the election. However, the
and countering extremism that criminalized a broad range
official pronouncement that Lukashenko won with an
of dissent and political activism. By July 2022, Belarusian
evidently exaggerated 80% of the vote led to protests. The
authorities had opened “more than 11,000 criminal cases
brutal crackdown that followed led to larger protests that
relating to extremism,” according to OHCHR. A 2023 law
some observers characterized as “leaderless” and that
enables authorities to revoke citizenship for extremism and
sometimes attracted hundreds of thousands of people. More
“causing grave harm to the interests of the state.” In 2022,
than 37,000 Belarusians were arrested or detained by May
the government also held a referendum, in a nondemocratic
2021, according to the U.N. Office of the High
environment, to pass constitutional changes that appear
Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), and more than
aimed at securing Lukashenko’s influence and personal
1,450 currently are political prisoners, according to
security even if he departs from office.
Belarusian human rights monitors. A few hundred thousand
people are estimated to have fled the country.
The Belarusian government has targeted citizens abroad. It
is responsible for at least 30 “incidents of direct, physical
Tsikhanouskaya left Belarus after being detained and
transnational repression” since 2014, according to Freedom
threatened with imprisonment (her husband, who sought the
House, a nongovernmental organization. In 2021,
presidency before her, was sentenced to 18 years in prison).
authorities forced the landing of a commercial airliner
From neighboring Lithuania, she formed a Coordination
flying from Greece to Lithuania to capture a Belarusian
Council to help lead the opposition. Five of the
Coordination Council’s seven senior members still in
journalist who had facilitated 2020 post-election protests.
The journalist and his companion, a Russian national, were
Belarus were detained; two were sentenced to more than 10
sentenced to several years in prison but were pardoned in
years in prison. In 2022, Tsikhanouskaya announced the
2023. In 2022, authorities amended the criminal code to
creation of the United Transitional Cabinet, a self-declared
allow for trial in absentia against citizens abroad accused of
interim government in exile. In March 2023, a Belarusian
certain crimes. In 2023, the government barred citizens
court sentenced Tsikhanouskaya in absentia to 15 years in
abroad from obtaining or renewing passports from overseas.
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Belarus: An Overview
Relations with Russia
Relations with the U.S. and Europe
Belarus is a member of the Russia-led Collective Security
The U.S. government, the EU, and others have condemned
Treaty Organization (CSTO). Russia and Belarus share an
Belarus’s support for Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and the
air defense system and frequently hold joint military
Lukashenko government’s crackdown since 2020. U.S.
exercises. Belarus also is a member of the Russia-led
officials have conveyed support for the Belarusian people’s
Eurasian Economic Union and relies heavily on Russian
“right to free and fair elections.” The European Council,
subsidized natural gas and oil and on loans from Russia
composed of the leaders of EU member states, stated the
(and China). Belarus and Russia also are members of a
EU does “not recognize the results” of the 2020 election.
supranational bilateral union state that the two governments
established in 2000 to promote their countries’ integration.
Since 2008, the United States has had a limited diplomatic
In practice, however, Lukashenko has sought to limit
presence and no ambassador in Belarus, originally due to
Belarus’s integration with Russia.
restrictions imposed by the Belarusian government. In
2020, the Senate confirmed the appointment of the first
Some observers suggest Russian authorities used Belarus’s
U.S. ambassador to Belarus in more than a decade, but the
2020 crisis to increase Russian influence over Belarus. The
government of Belarus retracted its agreement to receive
Russian government provided or promised Belarus more
her. The ambassador instead served as the U.S. Special
than 1 billion dollars in loans. Military cooperation between
Envoy for Belarus until June 2022; the Biden
Belarus and Russia increased, and the two governments
Administration has not appointed a new Special Envoy. In
committed to deepening their integration within the union
2021, the Department of State established a Belarus Affairs
state framework.
Unit at the U.S. Embassy in Lithuania. After Russia
renewed its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, the Department of
Belarus provided support for Russia’s renewed invasion of
State suspended operations of the U.S. embassy in Belarus.
Ukraine in 2022. Four days before the invasion, Belarusian
authorities announced that an estimated 30,000 Russian
The Belarus Democracy, Human Rights, and Sovereignty
troops who had participated in joint military exercises
Act of 2020 (P.L. 116-260, Division FF, Title III) amended
would remain in the country indefinitely. These troops
the Belarus Democracy Act of 2004 (22 U.S.C. §5811
constituted part of Russia’s initial invading force. The
note). Among other things, the act states it is the policy of
Belarusian government has permitted Russia to launch
the United States to reject the “invalid results” of the 2020
missile strikes and deploy bombers from Belarus. It has
presidential elections. The Belarus Democracy Act of 2004,
provided ammunition for Russian forces, hosted Russian
as amended, grants the U.S. President authority to impose
forces and equipment, provided training to mobilized
sanctions on persons in Belarus for human rights abuses
personnel, and received children that Russian authorities
and for undermining democracy. In the 117th Congress,
removed from occupied Ukraine. In June 2023, Lukashenko
H.Res. 124 and S.Res. 345 expressed support for the people
and Russian President Vladimir Putin stated that Russia had
of Belarus and their democratic aspirations.
begun to deploy tactical nuclear weapons in Belarus. Also
in June, Lukashenko participated in resolving a short-lived
U.S. assistance to Belarus focuses on independent media
mutiny by Russia’s paramilitary Wagner Group by agreeing
and civil society, human rights protection, and private
to host Wagner personnel.
sector development. The State Department allocated $10.2
million in FY2021; $35 million in FY2022; and $30 million
Belarus’s economic dependency on Russia has increased
in FY2023 for Belarus assistance. The FY2024 budget
since 2022. Western sanctions against trade in top
request includes $20 million for Belarus assistance. In
Belarusian exports—oil products and potash (fertilizer)—
December 2023, the State Department convened a strategic
have led Belarusian exporters to reroute their products to
dialogue with Belarus’s democratic opposition.
Russia and, via Russia, to non-sanctioning countries. Russia
has agreed to maintain subsidized oil and gas supplies for
The United States has imposed sanctions in response to
Belarus, defer debt payments, and assist Belarus in import
Belarusian authorities’ human rights abuses and support for
substitution efforts. Belarusian authorities also agreed to
Russia’s invasion of Ukraine (as has the EU). The U.S.
coordinate key taxation regimes with Russia. In 2022,
Department of the Treasury has imposed sanctions on 118
Belarus’s gross domestic product (GDP) declined by almost
individuals, 87 entities, and 5 aircraft pursuant to Executive
5%; Belarusian officials said they anticipated GDP to grow
Order (E.O.) 14038 of August 9, 2021, which provides for
by almost 4% in 2023.
sanctions on those who engage in human rights abuses,
electoral fraud, corruption, and other harmful activities in
In 2021, about half of Belarus’s merchandise trade was with
Belarus, or the earlier E.O. 13405 of June 16, 2006, which
Russia, according to the International Monetary Fund
provides for sanctions in response to similar activities. The
(IMF). Despite the imposition of Western sanctions on
Department of State separately has imposed visa
Belarus, the EU as a whole remained Belarus’s second-
restrictions on a few hundred Belarusian officials. Those
largest trading partner, with about 20% of its merchandise
subject to U.S. sanctions include Lukashenko, other
trade. In 2022, according to IMF estimates, about 62% of
officials and businesspeople, and major state-owned
Belarus’s trade was with Russia; less than 13% was with
companies. The United States has imposed export controls
the EU. Belarus’s total trade grew by almost 10% in 2022.
on military and dual-use goods and technology to Belarus
Less than 1% of Belarus’s total trade is with the United
and has restricted air travel to and from Belarus.
States.
Cory Welt, Specialist in Russian and European Affairs
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Belarus: An Overview
Shelby B. Senger, Presidential Management Fellow
IF10814
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