Updated June 1, 2023
The Philippines
Overview and Recent Developments
joint statement underscoring mutual commitments to bolster
The United States and the Republic of the Philippines
defense cooperation; uphold freedom of navigation and
maintain a deep relationship that includes a bilateral
overflight in the South China Sea and respect for “the
security alliance, extensive military cooperation, close
sovereign rights of states within their exclusive economic
people-to-people ties, and many shared strategic and
zones [EEZs] consistent with international law”; promote
economic interests. U.S. administration of the Philippines
bilateral trade and investment; and address climate change;
as a colonial territory (1898-1946), which followed 300
among others. During Marcos’s visit, the two allies
years of Spanish rule, shaped the relationship. Situated east
established new Bilateral Defense Guidelines, which aim to
of the South China Sea and south of Taiwan, the
modernize Philippine defense capabilities, deepen
Philippines has long played an important role in U.S. Asia
interoperability, enhance bilateral planning and
policy as a close security and counterterrorism partner. The
information-sharing, and combat transnational and non-
1951 Mutual Defense Treaty (MDT) requires the two
conventional threats. They broaden U.S. security
countries to help defend each other against external armed
commitments under the MDT, stating they would apply to
attack. The 1999 Visiting Forces Agreement governs the
armed third-party attacks against Philippine armed forces,
legal status of U.S. military forces operating in the
including the Coast Guard, aircraft, or public vessels
Philippines. The Biden Administration has made
“anywhere in the South China Sea.”
revitalizing U.S. alliances in Asia—including with the
Philippines—a key pillar of its Indo-Pacific Strategy.
Foreign Relations
The Philippines has long sought to balance its relations with
The United States is the Philippines’ third-largest trading
the United States and China. Manila has relied on the U.S.
partner, after the People’s Republic of China (PRC or
alliance and security presence in the region, while seeking
China) and Japan, and its largest export market. The
greater trade and investment from the PRC, despite
Philippines is one of 14 members of the Indo-Pacific
numerous tensions between the Philippines and China.
Economic Framework Initiative, which the Administration
Unlike former President Duterte, who had expressed
launched in May 2022.
distrust in the United States and sought early in his term to
strengthen ties with the PRC, Marcos has reaffirmed the
The Philippines at a Glance
importance of the U.S.-Philippines alliance, while seeking
to maintain a stable relationship with China.
In January 2023, Marcos went to Beijing and met PRC
leader Xi Jinping. The trip yielded PRC promises of loans,
infrastructure assistance, and other investments. The two
sides also agreed to resume talks on oil and gas exploration
in the South China Sea. According to reports, however, no
breakthroughs on major issues in the bilateral relationship
were achieved. In February 2023, Marcos visited Japan,
where discussions focused in part on further strengthening
security cooperation between the two countries, both of
which could be directly affected by a potential military

conflict between the PRC and Taiwan. The United States,
Sources: Map, CRS; Other information, Central Intelligence Agency,
the Philippines, and Japan reportedly are exploring
The World Factbook, 2023.
“trilateral modes of cooperation” in the security sphere.
Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos Jr. was elected President of
The Philippines is the largest recipient of U.S. military
the Philippines in 2022. Marcos’s father, Ferdinand Marcos
assistance in the East Asia-Pacific region, including Foreign
Sr., ruled the country from 1965 to 1986, including through
Military Financing and assistance under the Department of
Defense’s (DOD’s) Indo
martial law from 1972 until he was ousted by the 1986
-Pacific Maritime Security
People Power Revolution. Sara Duterte-Carpio, daughter of
Initiative. U.S. military and Armed Forces of the
former President Rodrigo Duterte, won the Vice
Philippines (AFP) personnel conduct regular military
Presidency. The Philippine constitution limits both the
exercises and maritime patrols, collaborate on
President and Vice President, who are elected on separate
counterterrorism, and carry out joint humanitarian
tickets, to one six-year term.
activities. In April 2023, over 17,000 U.S. and AFP soldiers
plus 100 Australian troops participated in “Balikatan”
(“Shoulder
In May 2023, President Joe Biden met with President
-to-Shoulder”), the alliance’s premier annual
Marcos in Washington, DC. The two countries issued a
bilateral exercise, in the Philippines. Balikatan 2023
https://crsreports.congress.gov

---

The Philippines
focused on maritime defense and domain awareness, and
may be made available for counternarcotics assistance for
was the first iteration to conduct live-fire drills.
the Philippines, except for drug demand reduction,
maritime law enforcement, or transnational interdiction.”
In 2014, the U.S. and Philippine governments signed the
Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA), 22
South China Sea
years after the U.S. military withdrew from Clark Air Base
The Philippines, China, and other countries have long-
and Subic Bay Naval Base in the Philippines. EDCA allows
standing disputes over waters and land features in the South
for the rotational presence of U.S. military forces, ships,
China Sea. Tensions have risen sharply since 2012, as
and aircraft at agreed locations in the Philippines. The 1987
China has enlarged and placed military assets on several
Constitution of the Philippines prohibits foreign military
disputed features in the Spratly archipelago, and interfered
bases. In February 2023, the two sides agreed to increase
with Philippine commercial and military activity in the
the number of Philippine military bases open to U.S. forces
Philippines’ EEZ. Since 2019, flotillas of PRC vessels have
from five to nine, including one across the Luzon Strait
regularly massed around Philippine-occupied land features
from Taiwan and two facing disputed islands and maritime
and have harassed Philippine fishing and coastguard vessels
features in the South China Sea. The PRC government
in the Philippines’ EEZ.
warned that the EDCA expansion plans would endanger
The Aquino government (2010-2016) sought arbitration
regional stability.
under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
Human Rights Concerns
(UNCLOS) against aspects of China’s claims and assertive
behavior in the South China Sea. In 2016, an UNCLOS
Significant human rights challenges in the Philippines
tribunal concluded, among other findings, that China’s
include extrajudicial killings, lack of protections for press
maritime territorial claims based on “historical rights” have
freedom and the safety of journalists, a weak judicial
no basis in international law. China did not participate in
system, and government corruption. In 2020, a Philippine
the proceedings and declared the verdict “null and void.” In
court found Maria Ressa, co-winner of the 2021 Nobel
contrast to the Duterte government, which largely ignored
Peace Prize, who had reported critically on the Duterte
Administration’s “War on Drugs,”
the ruling, the Marcos government has often cited it, stating
guilty of “cyber libel.”
the ruling and UNCLOS “are the twin anchors of the
Ressa remains on bail as she appeals her case to the
Philippines’ policy and actions” on the South China Sea.
Supreme Court of the Philippines.
Duterte’s drug war resulted in thousands of extrajudicial
Extremist and Separatist Movements
killings, triggering international condemnation. Estimates
The Philippines has long battled Muslim armed separatist
of anti-drug campaign-related deaths range from 6,200 to
and terrorist groups on the southern island of Mindanao.
30,000. Human rights groups report that virtually all of the
The Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG), which the United States
killings, which were carried out by police and armed
designated as a foreign terrorist organization (FTO) in
vigilantes, occurred without due process, and the vast
1997, has carried out hostage-takings for ransom, killings,
majority of victims were unarmed, poor, low-level
and bombings since the early 1990s. In 2017, a coalition of
offenders. President Marcos stated that he would continue
Filipino militant groups that had pledged allegiance to the
the anti-drug campaign “within the framework of the law
Islamic State, known as ISIS-Philippines, along with
and with respect for human rights.” Some human rights
dozens of foreign fighters, captured Marawi, a provincial
groups allege that extrajudicial killings related to anti-drug
capital in Mindanao. With U.S. and other foreign
operations have continued under Marcos and there has been
assistance, the AFP retook the city five months later. In
no apparent improvement in rehabilitation services. Marcos
2018, the State Department added ISIS-Philippines
opposes a pending International Criminal Court (ICC)
(renamed ISIS-East Asia in 2020) to the FTO list. DOD and
investigation into possible “crimes against humanity”
the U.S. Indo-Pacific Command have provided noncombat
related to the drug war. The Philippines withdrew from the
support for counterterrorism efforts in the southern
ICC in 2018. The Department of State, in a report that it
Philippines since 2002. By 2022, the AFP had reduced the
updated pursuant to the Consolidated Appropriations Act,
number of ASG fighters to around 130, according to
FY2023 (P.L. 117-328, section 7019(e)) states that the AFP
Philippine military officials, and significantly reduced the
“has made progress on human rights,” although “some AFP
terrorist threat in Mindanao.
personnel, particularly those acting outside the chain of
command, commit human rights abuses and violations.”
In 2018, the Duterte government and the Moro Islamic
U.S. Assistance and Restrictions
Liberation Front, an armed separatist group, reached an
agreement to establish a new Muslim-majority
Department of State and U.S. Agency for International
administrative area in Mindanao and the Sulu archipelago
Development (USAID) assistance to the Philippines totaled
called the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region of Muslim
an estimated $155.2 million in FY2022. It includes military
Mindanao (BARMM). After delays due to the Coronavirus
aid and programs aimed at promoting inclusive economic
Disease 2019 pandemic, a general election for the BARMM
development, the rule of law and human rights, and family
parliament is scheduled for 2025.
health, basic education, and environmental management.
Since 2016, the U.S. government has suspended
For further information, see CRS Report R47055, The
counternarcotics assistance to Philippine National Police
Philippines: Background and U.S. Relations.
units that carry out anti-drug efforts. The Consolidated
Appropriations Act, FY2023 (P.L. 117-328, section
Thomas Lum, Specialist in Asian Affairs
7043(h)) states, “None of the funds appropriated by this Act
Ben Dolven, Specialist in Asian Affairs
https://crsreports.congress.gov

---

The Philippines

IF10250


Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10250 · VERSION 48 · UPDATED

---