Updated March 21, 2023
The Philippines
Overview and Recent Developments
greater trade and investment from the PRC, despite
The United States and the Republic of the Philippines
numerous tensions between the Philippines and China.
maintain a deep relationship that includes a bilateral
Unlike his predecessor, Marcos has reaffirmed the
security alliance, extensive military cooperation, close
importance of the U.S.-Philippines alliance, even as he has
people-to-people ties, and many shared strategic and
also sought to maintain a stable relationship with China.
economic interests. U.S. administration of the Philippines
Former President Rodrigo Duterte had expressed distrust in
as a colonial territory (1898-1946), which followed 300
the United States and sought early in his term to strengthen
years of Spanish rule, shaped the relationship. Situated east
ties with the PRC. However, Duterte’s goal of garnering
of the South China Sea and south of Taiwan, the
major investments from Beijing was largely unsuccessful,
Philippines has long played an important role in U.S. Asia
and the two countries made no significant progress toward
policy as a close security and counterterrorism partner. The
resolving disputes.
1951 Mutual Defense Treaty (MDT) requires the two
countries to help defend each other against external armed
In January 2023, Marcos went to Beijing and met PRC
attack; Biden Administration officials have stated that the
leader Xi Jinping. The trip yielded PRC promises of loans,
MDT applies to armed third-party attacks against Philippine
infrastructure assistance, and other investments. The two
armed forces, public vessels, and aircraft in the disputed
sides also agreed to resume talks on oil and gas exploration
South China Sea. The Administration has also made
in the South China Sea. According to reports, however, no
revitalizing U.S. alliances in Asia—including with the
breakthroughs on major issues in the bilateral relationship
Philippines—a key pillar of its Indo-Pacific Strategy.
were achieved. In February 2023, Marcos visited Japan,
where discussions focused in part on further strengthening
In September 2022, Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos
security cooperation between the two countries, both of
Jr. traveled to New York, where he addressed the United
which could be directly affected by a potential military
Nations General Assembly and later met with President
conflict between the PRC and Taiwan.
Joseph Biden. The two leaders discussed ways to expand
bilateral cooperation on climate action, energy security,
The Philippines is the largest recipient of U.S. military
human rights, infrastructure, and security. In February
assistance in the East Asia-Pacific region, including Foreign
2023, Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin III and Philippine
Military Financing and assistance under the Department of
Secretary of National Defense Carlito Galvez announced
Defense’s (DOD’s) Indo-Pacific Maritime Security
the expansion of a 2014 agreement that allows U.S. access
Initiative. U.S. military personnel and the Armed Forces of
to Philippine military facilities (see below).
the Philippines (AFP) hold regular military exercises and
maritime patrols, collaborate on counterterrorism, and
The United States is the Philippines’ third-largest trading
conduct joint humanitarian activities. In 2022,
partner, after the People’s Republic of China (PRC or
approximately 3,800 AFP and 5,100 U.S. soldiers
China) and Japan, and its largest export market. The
participated in “Balikatan” (“Shoulder-to-Shoulder”), the
Philippines is 1 of 14 members of the Indo-Pacific
premier annual bilateral exercise in the Philippines. The
Economic Framework Initiative, which the Biden
2022 exercise focused on improving interoperability and
Administration launched in May 2022 to promote economic
joint defense capabilities and engaged in humanitarian and
growth, fairness, competitiveness, and related objectives
civic assistance projects.
among allies and partners in the region.
Figure 1. The Philippines at a Glance
Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos Jr. assumed the office of
President on June 30, 2022, having won more than 31
million of 55 million votes cast. Marcos is the son of
Ferdinand Marcos Sr., who ruled the country from 1965 to
1986, including through martial law from 1972 until he was
ousted by the 1986 People Power Revolution. Sara Duterte-
Carpio, daughter of outgoing President Rodrigo Duterte,
won the Vice Presidency. The Philippine constitution limits
both the President and Vice President, who are elected on
separate tickets, to one six-year term.
Foreign Relations
The Philippines has long sought to balance its relations with

the United States and China. Manila has relied on the U.S.
Sources: Map, CRS; Other information, Central Intelligence Agency,
alliance and security presence in the region, while seeking
The World Factbook, 2023.
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The Philippines
The United States and the Philippines signed the Enhanced
South China Sea
Defense Cooperation Agreement (EDCA) in 2014, 22 years
The Philippines, China, and other countries have long-
after the U.S. military withdrew from Clark Air Base and
standing disputes over waters and land features in the South
Subic Bay Naval Base. EDCA allows for the increased
China Sea. Tensions have risen sharply since 2012, as
rotational presence of U.S. military forces, ships, and
China has enlarged and placed military assets on several
aircraft in the Philippines. The United States has allocated
disputed features in the Spratly archipelago, and interfered
$82 million toward infrastructure improvements at five
with Philippine commercial and military activity in its
military sites under the agreement. In February 2023, the
Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Since 2019, flotillas of
two sides agreed to increase the number of Philippine
PRC vessels have regularly massed around Philippine-
military bases to nine, including in the main northern island
occupied land features, and have harassed Philippine
of Luzon. Northern Luzon is roughly 160 miles south of
fishing and coastguard vessels in the Philippines’ EEZ.
Taiwan.
The Aquino government (2010-2016) sought arbitration
Human Rights Concerns
under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
Former President Duterte’s “War on Drugs” resulted in
(UNCLOS) against aspects of China’s claims and assertive
behavior in the South China Sea. In 2016, an UNCLOS
extrajudicial killings, triggering international
tribunal concluded, among other findings, that China’s
condemnation. Estimates of anti-drug campaign-related
maritime territorial claims based on “historical rights” have
deaths range from 6,200 to 30,000. According to human
no basis in international law. China declined to participate
rights groups, virtually all of the killings, which were
in the proceedings and declared the verdict “null and void.”
carried out by police and armed vigilantes, occurred
In contrast to the Duterte government, which largely
without due process, and the vast majority of victims were
ignored the ruling, the Marcos government has often cited
unarmed, poor, low-level offenders. President Marcos has
it, stating the ruling and UNCLOS “are the twin anchors of
stated that he will continue the anti-drug campaign “within
the Philippines’ policy and actions” on the South China
the framework of the law and with respect for human
Sea.
rights,” targeting large illegal drug operations and
bolstering drug rehabilitation. Human rights groups allege
Extremist and Separatist Movements
that extrajudicial killings related to anti-drug operations
The Philippines has long battled Muslim armed separatist
have continued and there has been no apparent
and terrorist groups on the southern island of Mindanao.
improvement in rehabilitation efforts. In January 2023, the
The Abu Sayyaf Group, which the United States designated
International Criminal Court (ICC) announced it would
as a foreign terrorist organization in 1997, has carried out
reopen an investigation into possible “crimes against
humanity”
hostage-takings for ransom, killings, and bombings since
related to the drug war. The Philippines
the early 1990s. In 2017, a coalition of Filipino militant
withdrew from the ICC in 2018.
groups that had pledged allegiance to the Islamic State (IS),
In July 2022, the U.N. Special Rapporteur on Freedom of
known as ISIS-Philippines, along with dozens of foreign
Opinion and Expression, largely addressing human rights
fighters, laid siege to Marawi, a provincial capital in
violations that had arisen under the Duterte Administration,
Mindanao. With U.S. and other foreign assistance, the AFP
called on President Marcos to decriminalize libel, withdraw
retook the city five months later. In 2018, the State
charges against journalist Maria Ressa, reverse government
Department added ISIS-Philippines to its list of Foreign
decisions against media outlets, and investigate attacks on
Terrorist Organizations. The network, now renamed ISIS-
journalists. In 2020, a Philippine court found Ressa, co-
East Asia (ISIS-EA), has an estimated 300-500 fighters, and
winner of the 2021 Nobel Peace Prize who had reported
conducts sporadic attacks in Mindanao and the Sulu
critically on the drug war, guilty of “cyber libel.” The Court
archipelago. DOD and its Indo-Pacific Command have
provided noncombat support for counterterrorism efforts
of Appeals upheld the verdict in October 2022, and Ressa
since 2002.
remains on bail as she appeals her case to the Supreme
Court of the Philippines.
In 2018, the Duterte government and the Moro Islamic
U.S. Assistance and Restrictions
Liberation Front, an armed separatist group, reached an
Department of State and U.S. Agency for International
agreement to establish a new Muslim-majority
Development (USAID) assistance to the Philippines,
administrative area in Mindanao and Sulu called the
totaling an estimated $155.2 million in FY2022, includes
Bangsamoro Autonomous Region of Muslim Mindanao
military aid and programs aimed at promoting inclusive
(ARMM). The Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic
socio-economic development, the rule of law and human
reportedly delayed progress in key areas, including delays
rights, and family health, basic education, and
in electing a new ARMM government, disarming militants,
environmental management. Since 2016, the U.S.
providing social services, and attracting outside investment
government has suspended counternarcotics assistance to
in the historically poor region.
Philippine National Police units due to human rights
For further information, see CRS Report R47055, The
concerns related to anti-drug efforts. The Consolidated
Philippines: Background and U.S. Relations.
Appropriations Act, FY2023 (P.L. 117-328) states, “None
of the funds appropriated by this Act may be made
available for counternarcotics assistance for the Philippines,
Thomas Lum, Specialist in Asian Affairs
except for drug demand reduction, maritime law
Ben Dolven, Specialist in Asian Affairs
enforcement, or transnational interdiction.”
IF10250
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The Philippines


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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10250 · VERSION 47 · UPDATED

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