Updated January 30, 2023
Russia’s War on Ukraine: U.S. Policy and the Role of Congress
On February 24, 2022, Russia launched a new undeclared
Moscow’s 2014 invasion of Ukraine, interference in 2016
war against Ukraine, a country Russia first invaded in 2014
U.S. elections, and other malign activities.
and has partially occupied for almost nine years. The war is
Europe’s largest armed conflict in decades. Ukraine has
U.S. sanctions since February 2022 include restricting the
successfully waged defensive and counteroffensive
Russian central bank from drawing on its dollar-
operations bolstered by extensive military assistance,
denominated reserves, prohibiting most major Russian
chiefly from the United States and Europe. Still, Russia
banks from conducting transactions in U.S. dollars or with
occupies more than 15% of Ukraine’s territory and has
U.S. persons, and barring new U.S. investment in Russia.
intensified its attacks on infrastructure nationwide. The war
The United States also has expanded export controls
to date is estimated to have led to the deaths of tens of
affecting Russia’s access to sensitive or needed U.S.-origin
thousands and the forcible displacement of more than 14
technologies, banned the import of certain goods from
million people.
Russia, and prohibited Russian use of U.S. airspace and
ports. Since February 2022, the United States has imposed
Many observers view the Russia-Ukraine war in the context
economic sanctions on about 1,900 Russian individuals and
of Russian President Vladimir Putin’s increasingly
entities and banned entry into the United States for several
authoritarian rule, rising neo-imperialism and nationalism,
thousand Russian officials, military personnel, government-
and belief that Ukraine’s pro-Western democratic trajectory
connected businesspeople, and others.
could undermine his own regime and model of development
for Russia. The war follows a number of malign Russian
In addition to actions taken by the executive branch, the
activities abroad, including the 2008 invasion of Georgia,
117th Congress suspended normal trade relations with
2014 invasion of Ukraine, 2015 intervention in Syria, 2016
Russia and its ally Belarus (P.L. 117-110), prohibited the
interference in U.S. elections, use of chemical weapons
import to the United States of Russian oil and other energy
targeting regime opponents, and the deployment of
products (P.L. 117-109), and established sanctions on
mercenaries in conflicts in the Middle East and Africa.
foreign persons who engage in gold transactions with
Russia (P.L. 117-263, §5590).
“The General Assembly ... reaffirms its commitment
to the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial
The United States and the EU have closely cooperated in
integrity of Ukraine [and] declares that the unlawful
imposing sanctions on Russia, and many EU and other
actions of the Russian Federation ... have no validity
international sanctions are identical or similar to U.S.
under international law.”
sanctions. Although the EU has not imposed sanctions on
U.N. General Assembly Resolution ES-11/4, Oct. 12, 2022
Russian natural gas imports, Russia itself has substantially
reduced natural gas flows to Europe and the EU is working
to end its dependency on Russian energy imports.
The United States, member states of NATO and the
European Union (EU), and other partners regard Russia’s
By some metrics, Russia has weathered new sanctions
war against Ukraine as “unprovoked and unjustified.” The
better than many anticipated. Although forecasts in the
United States, the EU, and the United Kingdom (UK),
among others, have coordinated efforts to impose a series of
spring of 2022 suggested Russia’s gross domestic product
(GDP) would decline by as much as 15% in 2022, the
increasingly more severe sanctions on Russia. They also
International Monetary Fund estimates a more modest
have provided substantial military and economic aid to
Ukraine. To deter further Russian aggression, the United
contraction of 2.2%. Russia’s oil exports to non-U.S.
destinations, initially largely exempt from sanctions,
States and NATO also have increased their military
supported its economy for much of 2022. However, the EU
presence in Central and Eastern Europe. Congress may
consider additional actions and oversight with respect to
ban of seaborne Russian oil and the G7 price cap on
these and related issues.
Russian oil, implemented in December 2022, have created
new fiscal pressures for the Russian government.
Sanctions on Russia
Sanctions have created other challenges for Russia, and the
The United States, the EU, other countries in Europe
economic effects are increasing over time. Russia’s
(including the UK, Norway, and Switzerland), Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and South Korea, among
financial sector faces losses of hundreds of billions of
dollars; the Russian military is having difficulties procuring
others, have responded to Russia’s war on Ukraine with
key components; many Russian factories have suspended
sweeping sanctions. These sanctions expand upon and
greatly exceed measures the United States, the EU, and
production because they cannot access foreign-origin parts;
and hundreds of international companies have exited the
others previously imposed on Russia in response to
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Russia’s War on Ukraine: U.S. Policy and the Role of Congress
Russian market. Although the official unemployment rate is
its advice and consent to approve Finland’s and Sweden’s
less than 4%, outside analysts estimate it is closer to 10%.
accession to NATO.
Coordinated sanctions on Russia—the 11th largest economy
According to the Department of Defense, since February
in the world in 2021—also have broader economic
2022, the United States has deployed or extended about
implications that may factor into discussions about whether
20,000 additional armed forces to Europe, bringing the total
to tighten, maintain, or lift sanctions. U.S. and international
U.S. force posture in Europe, including permanently
companies exiting Russia are facing losses, and some
stationed forces, to approximately 100,000 military
countries such as Brazil, China, India, and Turkey, among
personnel. This includes rotational deployment of up to two
others, have increased economic ties with Russia. Sanctions
Brigade Combat Teams (BCTs) in Central and Eastern
also may contribute to higher energy prices globally,
Europe, deployment of about 10,000 troops to Poland—
exacerbating inflationary concerns in the United States,
including 800 soldiers deployed to a U.S.-led NATO
Europe, and elsewhere. More broadly, the sanctions may
battlegroup—about 3,000 troops in Romania, and additional
deepen fractures in the global economy and accelerate the
naval and air assets in the region.
efforts of various countries, notably China, to reduce
reliance on the U.S. dollar.
The increased U.S. military presence is part of an enhanced
NATO defense and deterrence posture in the eastern part of
Assistance to Ukraine
the alliance. Allied troops deployed to the region for the
The United States and allies also have responded to
first time in NATO’s history after Russia’s 2014 invasion
Russia’s 2022 invasion with military and economic
of Ukraine. Since February 2022, NATO has expanded its
assistance for Ukraine. In FY2022 and FY2023 to date,
military footprint in the eastern part of the alliance from
Congress has appropriated a total of $113 billion in
about 5,000 troops to about 40,000 allied soldiers under
Ukraine-related emergency supplemental funds. Of this
direct NATO command. This includes eight multinational
amount, Congress appropriated approximately $90 billion
battle groups stationed, respectively, in the Baltic states
for military, economic, and humanitarian assistance to
(Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), Poland, Slovakia,
Ukraine and other countries impacted by the war. The
Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.
remaining $23 billion is primarily for U.S. European
Command operations and related U.S. military support, as
Some allies, including Poland and the Baltic states, have
well as for other U.S. agency operations (including for
called for a more robust and permanent NATO military
sanctions implementation and refugee and entrant
presence in the region. NATO continues to portray its
assistance).
presence as continuous but rotational, and it has focused on
enhancing allied readiness to rapidly deploy additional
Donors other than the United States—including
troops to respond to a heightened threat.
governments and multilateral organizations—collectively
pledged about $85 billion in support to Ukraine through
Potential Policy Issues for Congress
November 2022, according to the nongovernmental Kiel
Related issues that Congress may seek to address could
Institute for the World Economy. Top non-U.S. donors
include the following:
include the EU and its member states (about $55 billion),
monitoring oversight of U.S. assistance to Ukraine,
multilateral donors such as the International Monetary Fund
including the types and disposition of military
and World Bank (about $17 billion), and the UK (about $7
equipment, and consideration of the U.S. role in
billion).
contributing to the cost of reconstruction;
For many countries, future deliberations regarding
monitoring levels of international assistance and
assistance may reflect efforts to balance robust support for
coordination efforts;
backing Ukraine with concerns about heightened foreign
assistance outlays amid a worsened economic climate.
assessing the impact of sanctions on Russia’s economy
Observers have debated the potential consequences of
and warfighting capabilities, as well as on the U.S. and
“donor fatigue,” as well as the prospects for sustaining
global economy;
current assistance levels and addressing Ukraine’s
identifying conditions under which sanctions could be
reconstruction needs of potentially $400 billion or more.
tightened, maintained, or eased, as well as conditions
Congress may seek to engage the Administration regarding
that could lead to a possible resolution of the war;
the amount and type of further assistance to Ukraine, as
well as current and future oversight of that assistance.
consideration of whether and how to support U.S. firms
and allies adversely affected by sanctions;
U.S. and NATO Force Posture in Europe addressing U.S. responses to countries that seek closer
In response to Russia’s war against Ukraine, the United
ties to Russia; and
States has increased military deployments to Europe and led
a broader NATO effort to deter further Russian aggression
consideration of the viability and benefits of sustained
and to defend NATO allies, particularly in Central and
European and NATO support for sanctions, assistance to
Eastern Europe. Congress has supported the enhanced U.S.
Ukraine, and military deployments in Central and
force presence and U.S. leadership of NATO defense and
Eastern Europe.
deterrence measures. In the 117th Congress, the Senate gave
Paul Belkin, Analyst in European Affairs
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Russia’s War on Ukraine: U.S. Policy and the Role of Congress
Cory Welt, Specialist in Russian and European Affairs
Rebecca M. Nelson, Specialist in International Trade and
IF12277
Finance
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