January 10, 2023
Understanding Linked Climate and Weather Hazards and the
Challenges to Federal Emergency Management
The U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric
hazards, including hazard monitoring, modeling,
Administration (NOAA) estimates that in 2022, the United
forecasting and issuing alerts, and supporting research.
States experienced 15 separate weather-related disasters
Scientific advancements across those areas have improved
that caused at least one billion dollars in damages—the
disaster assistance, but many gaps still exist. For instance,
eighth consecutive year to have 10 or more such events.
scientists remain uncertain about how linked hazards may
The impacts of such incidents are widespread: since 2011,
change in the future.
many U.S. counties have experienced at least one federally
declared disaster following a weather-related event. Such
Increasing Disaster Risk
trends present the 118th Congress with questions regarding
Disaster risk is often expressed as a function of the
the appropriate role of the federal government in disaster
frequency, duration, and intensity of hazards (e.g., extreme
management.
rainfall) along with an individual or community’s exposure
(e.g., development along coastal areas) and vulnerability
Recent disasters have strained affected state, local, tribal,
(e.g., low socioeconomic status or inadequate building
and territorial governments (SLTTs) and revealed the limits
standards). For example, disaster risk increases as more
of federal authorities to assist with emergency management
people settle near fire-prone forests or floodplains.
activities including:
Concurrent or cascading hazards can further intensify the
effects and increase the resultant costs of disasters.
ï‚· disaster response (urgent efforts to save lives and
protect property and the environment);
U.S. Emergency Management
ï‚·
The United States generally approaches emergency
recovery (restoring essential services and facilities); and
management from the “bottom up.” Disaster response and
ï‚· mitigation (reducing long-term risks to life, property,
recovery begins at the local level, with affected SLTTs
and the environment).
directly managing incidents in their own jurisdictions. The
President and other federal agencies generally provide
A warming climate, the increasing cost and complexity of
assistance only after a discrete incident, following a request
some disasters, and the risk of linked hazards (e.g., post-
by a state, territorial, or tribal executive indicating that the
wildfire flooding and debris flows like mudslides) have
existing resources are insufficient to address the situation.
raised concerns regarding the generally reactive nature of
federal disaster assistance authorities and how, if at all, they
These procedures do not easily align with slow-onset,
should adapt.
chronic, or linked disasters that may lack a clear beginning
Climate and Weather Hazards
and end. The effects of such disasters may be gradual or
appear to be unrelated (e.g., homes lost to coastal erosion,
Hazardous weather and climate events include severe
or damages caused by debris flows months after initial
storms, tropical cyclones, drought, wildfires, and extreme
wildfires). For this reason, the federal government may
heat or cold. These hazards—and their effects—may occur
determine that federal assistance is unnecessary, resulting in
on a variety of time scales. Some strike suddenly (rapid-
less assistance for affected communities.
onset) and conclude quickly, like tornadoes. Others, like
wildfires, develop rapidly and may last for days, weeks, or
Coordinating Federal Agencies and Assistance
months. Still others, like drought, develop slowly (slow-
Depending on the type and severity of a disaster, federal
onset) and may persist for months to years, becoming
assistance may be available through a range of agencies,
chronic. Similarly, some hazards may cause damage slowly
including the Federal Emergency Management Agency
without distinct temporal boundaries (e.g., erosion).
(FEMA), the Small Business Administration, the
Cascading, linked, or compound hazards—events that may
Department of Housing and Urban Development, the U.S.
overlap or occur consecutively—amplify the risk of adverse
Department of Agriculture (the lead agency for drought),
impacts to humans and natural resources. For example,
and the U.S. Forest Service (a lead agency for wildfire).
drought conditions can amplify wildfire risk, and a wildfire
The Department of Homeland Security has pre-identified
can exacerbate subsequent flooding and debris flow risk.
agency and nonfederal roles in disaster assistance and has
The federal government faces challenges in managing the
documented them in guidance, including the National
risk and effects of such linked hazards.
Response Framework and the National Disaster Recovery
Framework.
Scientific understanding of these hazards can inform
disaster assistance. Congress furnished a number of federal
agencies with responsibilities for understanding these
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Understanding Linked Climate and Weather Hazards and the Challenges to Federal Emergency Management
FEMA’s Role and the Stafford Act
Congress may also consider calls to cohere or consolidate
Under the authority of the Robert T. Stafford Disaster
disaster relief authorities that currently interact across
Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (hereinafter the
numerous federal statutes, executive agencies, and
Stafford Act; 42 U.S.C. §5121 et seq.), the President may
congressional committees. Over 30 federal agencies (and a
declare an emergency or disaster after determining that
comparable number of congressional committees of
federal assistance is required to avert or alleviate casualty,
jurisdiction) exercise authority over federal efforts to
damages, or suffering attributed to a discrete event. A
understand and manage hazards and disasters. SLTT
presidential Stafford Act declaration enables FEMA to
officials, emergency managers, and survivors persistently
provide relief to affected SLTTs, non-profits, individuals,
express frustration with the inconsistency, complexity, and
and households, and to coordinate federal relief efforts.
fragmentation of federal disaster assistance—particularly in
the wake of severe, geographically dispersed, and
To determine whether a Stafford Act declaration is
overlapping incidents (e.g., concurrent western wildfires).
warranted, FEMA evaluates costs attributed to a single
Additionally, existing authorities arguably limit some
incident during a specific period of time (e.g., the costs of
agencies’ abilities to provide federal response, recovery,
damages caused on the day a tornado struck a county).
and mitigation assistance for slow-onset, chronic hazards
FEMA generally supports such a declaration only if these
(e.g., erosion). Policy options could include consolidating
costs appear to overwhelm the affected jurisdictions or meet
authorities in fewer agencies (and/or congressional
certain thresholds. This process complicates the provision
committees), aligning program policies and eligibility
of FEMA assistance for slow-onset, linked, or chronic
requirements across agencies, and revising federal
disasters. Damages accrued during slow-onset events may
authorities to address cascading, slow-onset, and/or chronic
not be easily attributed to a discrete incident. An individual
incidents.
event in a series of linked hazards (e.g., a single flood as
part of recurring flooding, or flooding that follows a
Capacity Constraints
wildfire), may not, on its own, appear to overwhelm a state
Officials at all levels of government have reported capacity
or locality, or meet cost thresholds.
constraints in the face of more expensive and persistent
disasters. Federal and SLTT staffing shortfalls include
Mitigating Risk of Future Hazards
insufficient numbers of personnel and inadequate training
As with disaster response and recovery, Congress has
for specific functions. Insufficient capacity may delay
directed multiple federal agencies to support mitigation
response and recovery efforts or impede the use of federal
activities against future hazards (e.g., elevating properties to
funds for mitigation—increasing risk to hazard-prone areas.
reduce flood risk). Mitigation activities aim to decrease risk
In particular, SLTTs representing vulnerable communities
by reducing vulnerability and/or exposure. The impact of
may have fewer financial resources, personnel, and
federal mitigation funding is illustrated by a recent study
experience navigating federal programs.
that found that for every $1 of federal mitigation spending
in certain programs, society as a whole is expected to save
To address these concerns, Congress could consider various
$6 due to reduced future losses. The same study projected
options, including increasing support for emergency
that every $1 spent on building code adoption saved $11 in
management staffing, recovery, and mitigation; enhancing
avoided future losses.
assistance for vulnerable communities; and simplifying the
delivery of assistance. Alternatively, Congress could find
The federal government consistently provides significantly
that the existing capacity for disaster response is sufficent
more funding after a disaster than for pre-disaster
and choose not to amend existing authorities. Either action
mitigation. As the risk and costs of disasters have increased,
or inaction would likely come with a potential cost.
however, the federal government has expanded support for
pre-disaster mitigation. For example, Congress increased
Evaluating Federal Hazard-Related Spending
funding for pre-disaster mitigation through the Disaster
Congress may consider options to manage total disaster
Recovery Reform Act of 2018 (P.L. 115-254) and the
spending, such as (1) increasing federal support for
Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (P.L. 117-58).
mitigation that may reduce future losses; (2) restricting or
Congress may consider further enhancing federal support
eliminating federal spending in hazard-prone properties
for mitigation activities.
and/or areas; (3) requiring hazard-resilient rebuilding in
federally-funded projects; (4) expanding purchase
Key Policy Issues and Options
requirements for hazard insurance; or (5) increasing the
share of disaster assistance paid for by SLTTs. Congress
Clarification of Roles and Responsibilities
may also consider additional support for hazard science and
The 118th Congress faces questions from oversight bodies,
disaster assistance where there is currently limited federal
public officials, and survivors regarding the appropriate role
involvement (e.g., assistance for effects of extreme heat).
of the federal government in disaster management,
particularly given the increasing intensity, frequency, cost,
Katie Hoover, Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
and complexity of some disasters, and exposure and
Diane P. Horn, Specialist in Flood Insurance and
vulnerability to climate and weather hazards. Congress may
Emergency Management
consider clarifying or revising authorities that determine
Erica A. Lee, Analyst in Emergency Management and
whether and to what extent the federal government should
provide assistance before, during, or after disasters.
Disaster Recovery
Eva Lipiec, Analyst in Natural Resources Policy
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Understanding Linked Climate and Weather Hazards and the Challenges to Federal Emergency Management

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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF12307 · VERSION 1 · NEW

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