December 9, 2022
Russia’s War on Ukraine: U.S. Policy and the Role of Congress
On February 24, 2022, Russia launched a new undeclared
Moscow’s 2014 invasion of Ukraine, interference in 2016
war against Ukraine, a country Russia first invaded in 2014
U.S. elections, and other malign activities.
and has partially occupied for more than eight years. The
war is Europe’s largest armed conflict in decades. Ukraine
U.S. sanctions since February 2022 include restricting the
has successfully waged defensive and counteroffensive
Russian central bank from drawing on its dollar-
operations bolstered by extensive military assistance,
denominated reserves, prohibiting most major Russian
chiefly from the United States and Europe. Still, Russia
banks from conducting transactions in U.S. dollars or with
occupies more than 15% of Ukraine’s territory and has
U.S. persons, and barring new U.S. investment in Russia.
intensified its attacks on infrastructure nationwide. The war
The United States also has expanded export controls
to date is estimated to have led to the deaths of tens of
affecting Russia’s access to sensitive or needed U.S.-origin
thousands and the forcible displacement of more than 14
technologies, banned the import of certain goods from
million people.
Russia, and prohibited Russian use of U.S. airspace and
ports. The United States has imposed economic sanctions
Many observers view the Russia-Ukraine war in the context
on hundreds of Russian individuals and entities and banned
of Russian President Vladimir Putin’s increasingly
entry into the United States for thousands of Russian
authoritarian rule, rising neo-imperialism and nationalism,
officials and military personnel.
and belief that Ukraine’s pro-Western democratic trajectory
could undermine his own rule and model of development
In addition to actions taken by the executive branch, the
for Russia. The war follows a number of malign Russian
117th Congress suspended normal trade relations with
activities abroad, including the 2008 invasion of Georgia,
Russia and its ally Belarus (P.L. 117-110) and prohibited
2014 invasion of Ukraine, 2015 intervention in Syria, 2016
the import to the United States of Russian oil and other
interference in U.S. elections, use of chemical weapons
energy products (P.L. 117-109).
targeting regime opponents, and the deployment of
mercenaries in conflicts in the Middle East and Africa.
The United States and the EU have closely cooperated in
imposing sanctions on Russia, and many EU and other
“The General Assembly ... reaffirms its commitment
international sanctions are identical or similar to U.S.
to the sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial
sanctions. Although the EU has not imposed sanctions on
integrity of Ukraine [and] declares that the unlawful
Russian natural gas imports, Russia itself has substantially
actions of the Russian Federation ... have no validity
reduced natural gas flows to Europe and the EU is working
under international law.”
to end its dependency on Russian energy imports.
U.N. General Assembly Resolution ES-11/4, Oct. 12, 2022
By some metrics, Russia has weathered new sanctions
better than many anticipated. Although initial forecasts
suggested Russia’s gross domestic product (GDP) would
The United States, member states of NATO and the
European Union (EU), and other partners regard Russia’s
decline by as much as 15% in 2022, in October the
war against Ukraine as “unprovoked and unjustified.” The
International Monetary Fund forecast a more modest
United States, the EU, and the United Kingdom (UK),
contraction of 3%. Russia’s oil exports to non-U.S.
among others, have coordinated efforts to impose a series of
destinations, largely exempt from sanctions until December
increasingly more severe sanctions on Russia. They also
5, 2022, have been an important source of Russian
have provided substantial military and economic aid to
government revenues.
Ukraine. To deter further Russian aggression, the United
States and NATO also have increased their military
Sanctions have created challenges for Russia, however.
Russia’s
presence in Central and Eastern Europe. Congress may
financial sector reportedly faces losses of hundreds
consider additional actions and oversight with respect to
of billions of dollars; Russia reportedly is having
these and related issues.
difficulties procuring key components for its military; many
factories have suspended production because they cannot
Sanctions on Russia
access foreign-origin parts; hundreds of international
The United States, the EU, other countries in Europe
companies have exited the Russian market; and Russian oil
(including the UK, Norway, and Switzerland), Canada,
is selling below market prices. The expansion of EU and
Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and South Korea, among
G7 oil sector sanctions in December 2022 could create
others, have responded to Russia’s war on Ukraine with
additional economic challenges for Russia.
sweeping sanctions. These sanctions expand upon and
greatly exceed measures the United States, the EU, and
Coordinated sanctions on Russia—the 11th largest economy
others previously imposed on Russia in response to
in the world in 2021—also have broader economic
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Russia’s War on Ukraine: U.S. Policy and the Role of Congress
implications that may factor into discussions about whether
its advice and consent to approve Finland’s and Sweden’s
to tighten, maintain, or lift sanctions. U.S. and international
accession to NATO.
companies exiting Russia are facing losses, and some
countries such as Brazil, China, India, and Turkey, among
According to the Department of Defense, since February
others, have increased economic ties with Russia. Sanctions
2022, the United States has deployed or extended about
also may contribute to higher energy prices globally,
20,000 additional armed forces to Europe, bringing the total
exacerbating inflationary concerns in the United States,
U.S. force posture in Europe, including permanently
Europe, and elsewhere. More broadly, the sanctions may
stationed forces, to approximately 100,000 military
deepen fractures in the global economy and accelerate
personnel. This includes rotational deployment of up to two
various countries’ efforts to reduce reliance on the U.S.
Brigade Combat Teams (BCTs) in Central and Eastern
dollar.
Europe, deployment of about 10,000 troops to Poland—
including 800 soldiers deployed to a U.S.-led NATO
Assistance to Ukraine
battlegroup—about 3,000 troops in Romania, and additional
The United States and allies also have responded to
naval and air assets in the region.
Russia’s 2022 invasion with military and economic
assistance for Ukraine. In FY2022 and FY2023 to date,
The increased U.S. military presence is part of an enhanced
Congress has appropriated a total of $66 billion in Ukraine-
NATO defense and deterrence posture in the eastern part of
related emergency supplemental funds. Of this amount,
the alliance. Allied troops deployed to the region for the
Congress appropriated approximately $53 billion for
first time in NATO’s history after Russia’s 2014 invasion
military, economic, and humanitarian assistance to Ukraine
of Ukraine. Since February 2022, NATO has expanded its
and other countries impacted by the war. The remaining
military footprint in the eastern part of the alliance from
$13 billion is primarily for U.S. European Command
about 5,000 troops to about 40,000 allied soldiers under
operations and related U.S. military support, as well as for
direct NATO command. This includes eight multinational
other U.S. agency operations (including for sanctions
battle groups stationed, respectively, in the Baltic states
implementation and refugee and entrant assistance).
(Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania), Poland, Slovakia,
Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.
On November 15, 2022, President Biden submitted to
Congress a fourth request of almost $38 billion in Ukraine-
Some allies, including Poland and the Baltic states, have
related emergency supplemental funds. Appropriators
called for a more robust and permanent NATO military
reportedly are seeking to conclude a new funding package
presence in the region. NATO continues to portray its
by the end of 2022.
presence as continuous but rotational, and it has focused on
enhancing allied readiness to rapidly deploy additional
Donors other than the United States—including
troops to respond to a heightened threat.
governments and multilateral organizations—collectively
pledged about $85 billion in support to Ukraine through
Potential Policy Issues for Congress
November 2022, according to the nongovernmental Kiel
Related issues that Congress may seek to address could
Institute for the World Economy. Top non-U.S. donors
include the following:
include the EU and its member states (about $55 billion),
multilateral donors such as the International Monetary Fund
expanding oversight of U.S. assistance to Ukraine,
and World Bank (about $17 billion), and the UK (about $7
including the types and disposition of military
billion).
equipment, and consideration of the U.S. role in
contributing to the cost of reconstruction;
For many countries, future deliberations regarding
monitoring levels of international assistance and
assistance may reflect efforts to balance robust support for
coordination efforts;
backing Ukraine with concerns about heightened foreign
assistance outlays amid a worsened economic climate.
assessing the impact of sanctions on Russia’s
Observers have debated the potential consequences of
economy and warfighting capabilities, as well as on
“donor fatigue,” as well as the prospects for sustaining
the U.S. and global economy;
current assistance levels and addressing Ukraine’s
reconstruction needs of potentially $500 billion or more.
identifying conditions under which sanctions could be
Congress may seek to engage the Administration regarding
tightened, maintained, or eased, as well as conditions
the amount and type of further assistance to Ukraine, as
that could lead to a possible peace process;
well as further oversight of that assistance.
consideration of whether and how to support U.S.
U.S. and NATO Force Posture in Europe
firms and allies adversely affected by sanctions;
In response to Russia’s
war against Ukraine, the United
addressing U.S. responses to countries that seek closer
States has increased military deployments to Europe and led
ties to Russia; and
a broader NATO effort to deter further Russian aggression
consideration of the viability and benefits of sustained
and to defend NATO allies, particularly in Central and
European and NATO support for sanctions, assistance
Eastern Europe. Congress has supported the enhanced U.S.
to Ukraine, and military deployments in Central and
force presence and U.S. leadership of NATO defense and
Eastern Europe.
deterrence measures. In the 117th Congress, the Senate gave
Paul Belkin, Analyst in European Affairs
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Russia’s War on Ukraine: U.S. Policy and the Role of Congress
Cory Welt, Specialist in Russian and European Affairs
Rebecca M. Nelson, Specialist in International Trade and
IF12277
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