Updated December 9, 2022
Defense Primer: Information Operations
Information Warfare
Operations are one of Special Operations Forces’ (SOF’s)
While there is currently no official U.S. government (USG)
core activities, but IO is not the exclusive purview of SOF.
definition of information warfare (IW), practitioners
typically conceptualize it as a strategy for the use and
All of these activities take place within the information
management of information to pursue a competitive
environment, which is the aggregate of individuals,
advantage, including both offensive and defensive
organizations, and systems that collect, disseminate, or act
operations. Strategy can be defined as the process of
on information. This consists of three dimensions: the
planning to achieve objectives and goals in the national
physical dimension, where information overlaps with the
interest. Operations link strategic objectives with tactics,
physical world; the information dimension, where
techniques, and procedures. For IW strategy, that link is
information is collected, processed, stored, disseminated,
information operations (IO).
displayed, and protected, including both the content and the
flow of information between nodes; and the cognitive
Information Operations
dimension, where human decisionmaking takes place based
Past definitions within the DOD have conceptualized IO as
upon how information is perceived. All instruments of
a purely military activity involving a set of tactics or
national power—diplomatic, informational, military, and
capabilities. In DOD Joint Publication (JP) 3-13 and the IO
economic (DIME)—can be projected and employed in the
Roadmap, IO consisted of five pillars: computer network
information environment, and by nonmilitary elements of
operations (CNO), which include computer network attack,
the federal government.
computer network defense, and computer network
exploitation; psychological operations (PSYOP); electronic
Types of Information
warfare (EW); operations security (OPSEC); and military
In common parlance, the term “disinformation campaign” is
deception (MILDEC). With the advent of U.S. Cyber
often used interchangeably with information operations.
Command, CNO became cyberspace operations, offensive
However, disinformation or deception is only one of the
and defensive with its own doctrine in JP 3-12. In 2010,
informational tools that comprise an IW strategy; factual
PSYOP became military information support operations
information can also be used to achieve strategic goals and
(MISO), to reflect a broader range of activities and the
in some cases more effectively than deceptive means.
existing Military Information Support Teams consisting of
Different categories of information that may be used in IO
PSYOP personnel deployed at U.S. embassies overseas.
include the following:
Joint Publication 3-13.2 replaced the term PSYOP with
MISO to “more accurately reflect and convey the nature of
Propaganda: This means the propagation of an idea or
planned peacetime or combat operations activities.” The
narrative that is intended to influence, similar to
name change reportedly caused administrative confusion,
psychological or influence operations. It can be misleading
and the services are beginning to revert to the PSYOP label.
but true, and may include stolen information. A government
communicating its intent, policies, and values through
The Secretary of Defense characterizes IO in JP 3-13 as
speeches, press releases, and other public affairs can be
“the integrated employment, during military operations, of
considered propaganda.
information-related capabilities in concert with other lines
of operation to influence, disrupt, corrupt, or usurp the
Misinformation: This is the spreading of unintentionally
decision making of adversaries and potential adversaries
false information. Examples include Internet trolls who
while protecting our own.” This definition shifted the focus
spread unfounded conspiracy theories or web hoaxes
from a set of tactics toward the desired effects and how to
through social media, believing them to be true.
achieve them. JP 3-13 defines information-related
capability (IRC) as a tool, technique, or activity employed
Disinformation: Unlike misinformation, disinformation is
within a dimension of the information environment that can
intentionally false. Examples include planting false news
be used to create effects and operationally desirable
stories in the media and tampering with private and/or
conditions.
classified communications before their widespread release.
Strategic communication, public diplomacy and public and
Cyber-Enabled Information Operations
civil affairs, and cyberspace operations may be considered
Cyberspace presents a force multiplier for IW activities.
supporting capabilities. These efforts may take place in and
Social media and botnets can amplify a message or
throughout each of the global domains of air, land, sea,
narrative, using all three elements of information to foment
space, and cyberspace, and in various forms unrelated to
discord and confusion in a target audience. Much of today’s
cyberspace such as dropping pamphlets, cultural exchanges,
IO is conducted in cyberspace, leading many to associate
jamming or broadcasting targeted communications, and
IO with cybersecurity. Within DOD, however, IO and
foreign aid programs. Military Information Support
cyberspace operations are distinct doctrinal activities.
https://crsreports.congress.gov

---

Defense Primer: Information Operations
Cyberspace operations can be used to achieve strategic
continuum (cooperation, competition short of armed
information warfare goals; an offensive cyberattack, for
conflict, and warfighting). This definition of the continuum
example, may be used to create psychological effects in a
would align with the 2018 National Defense Strategy,
target population. A foreign country may use cyberattacks
which emphasizes information warfare as competition short
to influence decisionmaking and change behaviors, for
of open warfare. IW is defined not as a strategy but as a
example the DPRK-attributed cyberattacks on Sony in late
subset of OIE conducted during both competition below
2014. Cyber operations may be conducted for other
armed conflict and during warfighting in order to dominate
information operations purposes, such as to disable or deny
the IE at a specific place and time. IO would be defined not
access to an adversary’s lines of communication or to
as a set of capabilities but as the staff function that
demonstrate ability as a deterrent. IO may be overt, such as
synchronizes IRCs for the Commander to conduct OIE.
a government’s production and dissemination of materials
Superseded by the Information Joint Function, IO may in
intended to convey democratic values. In this case, the
the future considered a legacy term by the DOD.
government sponsorship of such activity is known. Covert
operations are those in which government sponsorship is
Who Is Responsible for the “I” in DIME?
denied if exposed. The anonymity afforded by cyberspace
Within the USG, much of the current information
presents an ideal battlespace to conduct covert information
operations doctrine and capability resides with the military.
operations.
Many consider DOD to be relatively well-funded, leading
some to posit that the epicenter for all IW activities should
In JP 3-12, DOD defines cyberspace as “the global domain
be the Pentagon. Some fear that military leadership of the
within the information environment consisting of the
IW sphere represents the militarization of cyberspace, or
interdependent network of information technology
the weaponization of information. In addition, the military
infrastructures and resident data, including the Internet,
may not possess the best tools to successfully lead
telecommunications networks, computer systems, and
information efforts across the USG. Title 10 U.S.C. 2241
embedded processors and controllers.” Some have
prohibits DOD from domestic “publicity or propaganda,”
criticized this as lacking the cognitive, human element that
although the terms are undefined. It is unclear how IW/IO
the internet represents, which in turn could adversely affect
relate to this so-called military propaganda ban. P.L. 115-
how the military organizes, trains, and equips for IO in
232 tasked the State Department’s Global Engagement
cyberspace. Additionally, there are concerns that the split
Center (GEC) to “direct, lead, synchronize, integrate, and
between IO and cyberspace operations in doctrine and
coordinate efforts of the Federal Government to recognize,
organization creates a stovepipe effect that hinders
understand, expose, and counter foreign state and foreign
coordination of these closely related capabilities. As such,
non-state propaganda and disinformation efforts….” P.L.
some services such as the Army and Air Force are
116-92 created a Principal Information Operations Advisor
reorganizing assets from Cyber Commands into
within DOD to coordinate and deconflict its operations with
Information Warfare Commands. The Marine Corps has
the GEC, who is the lead.
created a Deputy Commandant for Information in order to
oversee Operations in the Information Environment, to
Information Operations as an Act of War?
include cyberspace operations.
Some have questioned whether tampering with, interfering
with, or otherwise influencing a sovereign nation’s
Information as a Joint Function
democratic processes in an IW campaign is an act of war
In 2017, JP-1 Doctrine of the Armed Forces of the United
that could trigger a military response, and not necessarily in
States was updated to establish information as the seventh
cyberspace. A similar question is whether a cyberattack that
joint function of the military, along with C2, intelligence,
falls below the threshold of damage and destruction that a
fires, movement and maneuver, protection, and
kinetic event would impart could be considered an armed
sustainment. This designation has necessitated clarification
attack under international law. U.S. policy suggests that
and revisions in some DOD doctrine.
these types of operations fall below the threshold of armed
conflict.
Operations in the Information Environment
In 2018, DOD issued a Joint Concept for Operations in the
CRS Reports
Information Environment. According to this document, the
IE comprises and aggregates numerous social, cultural,
CRS Report R45142, Information Warfare: Issues for
cognitive, technical, and physical attributes that act upon
Congress, by Catherine A. Theohary.
and affect knowledge, understanding, beliefs, world views,
and, ultimately, actions of an individual, group, system,
Other Resources
community, or organization. The IE also includes technical
DOD. Joint Publication 3-13, Information Operations,
systems and their use of data. The IE directly affects and
November 27, 2012.
transcends all operating environments.
DOD. Defense Directive 3600.01, Information Operations,
New DOD policy would define Operations in the
May 2, 2013.
Information Environment (OIE) as actions taken to

generate, preserve, and apply informational power against a

relevant actor in order to increase or protect competitive
advantage or combat power potential within all domains of
Catherine A. Theohary, Specialist in National Security
the operating environment. OIE span the competition
Policy, Cyber and Information Operations
https://crsreports.congress.gov

---

Defense Primer: Information Operations

IF10771


Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10771 · VERSION 9 · UPDATED

---