October 18, 2022
Interfaith Relations and Religious Freedom in Nigeria
Nigeria is the world’s sixth most populous country, with
The jurisdiction of sharia courts was limited to personal
approximately 220 million people. Its population is highly
matters until 1999, when several state governments in the
diverse, encompassing hundreds of ethno-linguistic groups.
north introduced sharia criminal codes, alongside Islamic
There are no official data on religious affiliation in Nigeria,
policies and institutions. The extension of sharia appeared
but its population is estimated to be fairly evenly split
popular in parts of the north, but spurred protests and
between Muslims and Christians; Muslims are a majority in
clashes in some areas with larger Christian populations.
the north and Christians a majority in the south, although
there are large Christian communities in the north and vice
Sharia courts legally may not compel participation by non-
versa. Intrareligious diversity is extensive, encompassing
Muslims, though non-Muslims can elect to have cases tried
Sunni, Shia, heterodox, and non-sect specific Islam and a
in sharia courts; some report a preference for sharia courts,
wide spectrum of Protestant, Catholic, and non-
describing them as more efficient and less corrupt than civil
denominational Christianity. Some Nigerians follow
courts. Nonetheless, USCIRF assesses that Christians, Shia
Indigenous faith practices, alone or in combination with
Muslims—a minority in Nigeria’s largely Sunni north—and
Christianity or Islam; others claim no religious affiliation.
atheists and have faced discrimination and violations of
religious freedom in the course of sharia implementation,
While Nigeria’s faith communities have often coexisted
including abuses by hisbah associations, which enforce
peacefully, religious affairs are sensitive, state persecution
sharia. Blasphemy is illegal under sharia and customary
on religious grounds has been an enduring problem, and
law, and courts in both systems have charged and convicted
interfaith relations at times flare up and lead to violence.
people of blasphemy, including at least three convictions in
Each year since 2009, the congressionally mandated U.S.
2020-2022. Such cases are often widely publicized and
Commission on International Religious Freedom (USCIRF)
highly charged; appellate courts have overturned several
has called on the State Department to designate Nigeria as a
blasphemy convictions on appeal, or vacated the most
Country of Particular Concern (CPC) under the
severe sentences. (There also have been instances of mob
International Religious Freedom Act of 1998 (IRFA, P.L.
violence following blasphemy allegations; see below.)
105-292). Oversight of IRFA determinations are a potential
issue for Congress, as are the implications of threats to
Anti-Shia Repression. Nigeria’s minority Shia community,
religious freedom for U.S.-Nigeria policy and aid. Some
which is concentrated in the northwest, has faced state
Members of Congress, religious freedom advocates, and
repression and social discrimination. Many Shia belong to
State Department reports on international religious freedom
the Islamic Movement of Nigeria (IMN), a group led by
have cited a number of concerns in Nigeria, including:
outspoken cleric Ibrahim Zakzaky, a longtime critic of the
Nigerian government. Observers have repeatedly accused
Sharia Law. Nigeria has a hybrid legal system that blends
security forces of using excessive force to disperse IMN
common and statutory law, customary law (based on mores
gatherings. In 2015, for instance, the military reportedly
in particular ethnic communities), and, in the north, sharia,
killed nearly 350 IMN members and arrested Zakzaky and
or Islamic law (see map). There are separate courts for each
hundreds of others after a confrontation during an IMN
branch of law; civil courts have appellate jurisdiction over
procession. Security forces reportedly killed dozens during
customary and sharia courts at the federal and state levels.
IMN protests calling for Zakzaky's release. In 2021, a state
civil court acquitted Zakzaky of all charges in the matter.
Figure 1. States in which Sharia Courts Operate
Intercommunal conflict. In the north, allegations of
blasphemy have, in some cases, resulted in lynchings and
other violence. In May 2022, for instance, a mob lynched a
Christian college student, Deborah Samuel, for allegedly
blaspheming against Islam in a WhatsApp message to
fellow students. Attackers have seldom faced arrest or
prosecution following religiously motivated mob violence.
Intercommunal conflicts in Nigeria have often played out
along sectarian lines, even if not always rooted in religious
disagreements. The “Middle Belt,” an ethno-religiously
diverse region in central Nigeria where religious affiliation
and ethnic identity often overlap, has seen repeated clashes
between Muslims and Christians, at times sparked by
blasphemy allegations or other religiously charged events.
Source: CRS, with data from the U.S. Department of State and ESRI.
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Interfaith Relations and Religious Freedom in Nigeria
Such violence has often coincided with disputes between
dismay over Nigeria’s de-listing as a CPC, which USCIRF
“Indigenes”—those officially recognized as native to an
described as “unexplainable.” Some Members of Congress
area, who are afforded preferential access to employment,
criticized the removal and have called for the country’s re-
education, and political representation—and “settlers,” who
designation in 2022. (CPC determinations typically are
are considered non-native and are subject to discrimination
issued in November.)
regardless of (at times generational) length of residency.
Foreign Assistance. Congress authorizes, appropriates, and
The Middle Belt also has been the site of violence between
oversees U.S. assistance. The U.S. Agency for International
predominately Muslim, ethnic Fulani herders and Christian
Development has administered several projects to promote
farmers of various ethnic groups. Many analysts primarily
intercultural understanding and conflict resolution in the
attribute such conflicts to disputes over control of resources
Middle Belt, particularly between farmers and herders.
pitting “Indigene” ethnic groups against “settler” Fulani.
Others, including religious freedom advocates and some
Selected Considerations and Options. Threats to religious
Members of Congress, describe sectarian tensions as a main
freedom in Nigeria stem partly from state discrimination
driver of violence. Attackers have abducted and killed
and persecution and partly from the state’s failure to protect
Christian clergy and worshipers and destroyed churches. In
local faith communities from threats posed by non-state
the northern Middle Belt and in Nigeria’s northwest, where
actors (e.g., Boko Haram, IS-WA, and communal militias).
herders and farmers alike are largely Muslim, gunmen have
Policymakers may debate the relative merit and
attacked Muslim leaders and congregations and destroyed
effectiveness of punitive actions, such as foreign aid
mosques. Authorities rarely identify or arrest perpetrators;
restrictions or sanctions, vis-à-vis measures that seek to
impunity has spurred vigilantism and reprisal killings.
build the capacity of the Nigerian state to respond to
violence that threatens freedom of religion. Where threats
Islamist Extremism. Pursuant to IRFA, the State
to religious freedom result from communal violence, as in
Department has designated Nigerian-origin Islamist
the Middle Belt, U.S. policymakers may debate the relative
extremist group Boko Haram and an Islamic State-affiliated
importance of religious divisions vis-à-vis other factors in
splinter faction, the Islamic State West Africa Province (IS-
sparking and sustaining such conflicts, and consider the
WA), as “entities of particular concern” for committing
appropriate mix and emphasis of various policy responses.
“particularly severe” religious freedom violations. Boko
Haram leaders have preached a radical form of Salafist
That religious matters in Nigeria are socially and politically
Sunni Islam, rejecting Western influence, Christianity, and
delicate, with religious tensions prone to rapid escalation,
more moderate forms of Islam. The group has threatened
may raise additional considerations related to the potential
and killed Christians and Muslims and attacked places of
unintended consequences of U.S. policy responses. Some
worship. IS-WA split from Boko Haram citing, in part,
observers have voiced concern that U.S. public statements
objections to the practice of killing Muslims, and has
related to such highly charged issues as sharia rulings may
generally focused attacks on state targets and Christians.
inflame religious sensibilities and provoke local backlash.
Conversely, USCIRF and other religious freedom groups,
Many victims of two high-profile mass kidnappings by the
have pushed for public expressions of concern in response
groups—Boko Haram’s abduction of 276 girls from Chibok
to religious freedom violations to signal U.S. attentiveness,
in 2014 and IS-WA's abduction of 110 girls from Dapchi in
disapproval, or solidarity with those affected.
2018—were Christian. Kidnappers reportedly forced some
Chibok abductees to convert to Islam; all of those abducted
Congress may consider whether or not to apply various
in Dapchi have escaped or been released except a Christian
tools in response to interreligious conflict and religious
whom IS-WA reportedly has kept due to her refusal to
freedom violations in Nigeria. Members may, for instance:
convert. The kidnappings have attracted sustained attention
from Congress; in the 117th Congress, H.Res. 319 would
Conduct hearings, briefings, and/or fact-finding trips to
mark the seventh anniversary of the Chibok attack.
examine interreligious violence and religious freedom
violations in Nigeria and assess U.S. policy responses.
U.S. Responses and Issues for Congress
Demonstrate concern or exercise oversight through
CPC and Special Watch List Designations. As noted
correspondence with executive branch and/or Nigerian
above, USCIRF has called for Nigeria’s designation of
officials, public statements, and/or resolutions.
Nigeria as CPC under IRFA, most recently in 2022. In
Mandate executive branch attention to religious freedom
2020, for the first time, the Trump Administration named
in Nigeria via legislation, such as by requiring reporting
Nigeria a CPC. According to USCIRF, Nigeria was the first
to, or consultation with, Congress on such issues.
secular democracy to be so designated. CPC designations
can result in punitive actions (e.g., foreign aid cuts), though
Consider whether or not to provide funding for foreign
these are often waived or excepted; the Administration
assistance programs focused on averting, mitigating, and
waived any such measures for Nigeria, citing U.S. interest.
resolving interreligious conflicts.
Consider whether or not to condition or restrict foreign
In 2021, the Biden Administration upgraded Nigeria to the
aid for Nigeria due to religious freedom concerns.
“Special Watch List” under IRFA, as amended, determining
that Nigeria had engaged in or tolerated severe violations of
Tomás F. Husted, Analyst in African Affairs
religious freedom but had not met criteria for designation as
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a CPC. Many religious freedom advocacy groups expressed
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Interfaith Relations and Religious Freedom in Nigeria
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