June 21, 2022
Global Trends in Democracy and Authoritarianism: Challenges
to Press Freedom
Some Members of Congress have expressed concern over
regulatory measures that purport to combat issues of public
global challenges to press freedom. According to a recent
concern (such as terrorism, defamation, or
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
mis/disinformation) that may be so broad as to effectively
Organization (UNESCO) report, approximately 85% of the
criminalize or restrict the free expression of individuals and
world’s population experienced a decline in press freedom
the work of media outlets. In the context of the Coronavirus
in their country between 2016 and 2020. Some Members of
Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, for example, some
the 117th Congress have proposed legislation seeking to
governments appear to be have used a stated need to
bolster U.S. foreign policy responses to this trend.
combat health-related misinformation as a pretext for
imposing restrictions on media.
Press Freedom and Democracy
Erosions in press freedom may be both a contributor to, and
The ability of journalists to report information, and of
a symptom of, current global trends of democratic
citizens to meaningfully access their reporting, is also
backsliding and rising authoritarianism. Many experts
affected by trends of receding levels of internet freedom
describe the presence of a free, independent, and pluralistic
and genuine challenges with disinformation online.
media sector as an essential condition for genuine and well-
Common government efforts to erode freedom of
functioning democratic governance. They see a free press
expression online include arrests of individual users, blocks
as critical to holding governments accountable to the public
of websites or social media platforms, internet shutdowns
and helping citizens make informed decisions about
or throttling, and the drowning out of independent voices
political leaders and policies. Analysis of recent trends in
through coordinated disinformation campaigns.
backsliding democracies has reinforced this view, with
efforts to undermine press freedoms identified as a common
Unfair or Distorted Media Environments. In some
early indicator of broader democratic breakdown. Within
partially democratic countries, governments, government-
non-democracies, governments appear to have drawn on an
aligned actors, or other powerful figures may use legal,
evolving playbook for repressing independent sources of
economic, or regulatory tools to tilt media environments
information, potentially contributing to the apparent
toward disadvantaging or co-opting critical media outlets
increased durability of modern authoritarian governance.
and/or favoring pro-government views. Relevant tactics can
include, for example, selective or arbitrary application of
tax laws or licensing practices, ownership takeovers, unfair
International Frameworks
distribution of government subsidies or advertising budgets,
Both the 1948 U.N. Universal Declaration of Human
and expensive and time-consuming lawsuits (often referred
Rights and the 1976 International Covenant on Civil
to as strategic lawsuits against public participation, or
and Political Rights enumerate the right of everyone
SLAPPs). Experts have raised concerns about the influence
to “seek, receive and impart information and ideas”
of authoritarian governments, particularly China and
through any form of media, “regardless of frontiers.”
Russia, on media environments in countries around the
The 1991 Declaration of Windhoek on Promoting an
world. Media outlets are under financial strain in many
Independent and Pluralistic African Press arguably is a
countries, making them vulnerable to efforts to impede,
landmark statement of free press principles. It states
influence, or co-opt their work.
in part that an “independent, pluralistic and free press
is essential to the development and maintenance of
Harassment and Attacks against Journalists. Journalists
democracy in a nation.” The U.N. General Assembly
around the world can face threats, harassment,
in 1993 proclaimed the anniversary of the Windhoek
imprisonment, physical attacks, or killings for doing their
Declaration, May 3, as World Press Freedom Day. In
work. According to UNESCO, 400 journalists globally
2021, UNESCO members (the United States is not
were killed for doing their jobs between 2016 and 2020.
currently a member) approved the principles of a new
Perpetrators—which can include state and non-state
“Windhoek+30” Declaration that reaffirms and builds
actors—typically enjoy impunity, with the vast majority of
on the original Declaration.
cases remaining unresolved. While data indicate that the

Selected Global Challenges
number of journalist killings globally decreased somewhat,
instances of journalist imprisonments have been on the rise.
Government Censorship and Control. In some countries,
particularly those with forms of authoritarian governance,
Biden Administration Initiatives
media organizations are unable to operate independent of
The Biden Administration has emphasized press freedom
substantial government control or influence. Even in
issues as part of a broader policy, consistent with many
relatively freer contexts, some governments use legal or
prior Administrations, to promote and defend democracy
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Global Trends in Democracy and Authoritarianism: Challenges to Press Freedom
around the world. The Administration announced a number
Subtitle F of P.L. 114-328). The executive branch has
of relevant initiatives at the December 2021 Summit for
utilized these authorities on some occasions to respond to
Democracy. These include pledged funding for: a) the
government actions taken against journalists overseas. This
International Fund for Public Interest Media, which aims
has included, for example, sanctions in response to the
“to enhance the independence, development, and
October 2018 Saudi government operation that resulted in
sustainability of independent media, especially in resource-
the killing of Jamal Khashoggi, and the May 2021 forced
poor and fragile settings;” b) a program to “improve the
diversion of an international flight by Belarusian authorities
financial viability of independent media outlets;” c) a fund
for the apparent purpose of detaining and arresting a
to provide liability coverage to journalists seeking
Belarusian journalist. In February 2021, the State
protection from lawsuits designed to deter their work; and
Department announced the “Khashoggi Ban,” which allows
d) a program to provide journalists with digital and physical
for visa restrictions against individuals working for foreign
security training and other assistance. The United States
governments engaged in “serious, extraterritorial counter-
and some other governments further announced a joint
dissident activities,” including against journalists.
effort to establish a code of conduct for using export
controls to prevent the spread of technologies that enable
Foreign Assistance Conditionality. Certain provisions that
human rights abuses, including against journalists.
restrict foreign assistance on the basis of human rights have
potential relevance for responding to human rights
Selected U.S. Policy Tools
violations related to press freedom. These include Sections
Public Reporting. The State Department’s statutorily
116 and 502B of the Foreign Assistance Act, as amended,
mandated annual Country Reports on Human Rights
which, though rarely invoked, restrict certain assistance to
Practices include information on freedom of expression
governments engaging “in a consistent pattern of gross
conditions for members of the media in countries around
violations of internationally recognized human rights.”
the world. This media-specific reporting is pursuant in part
Some SFOPS provisions have also contemplated possible
to the Daniel Pearl Freedom of the Press Act of 2009 (P.L.
relevant assistance restrictions to particular countries.
111-166), which required the State Department to expand
the reports’ coverage of press freedom issues.
Export Controls. The United States may use export
controls to combat the spread of technologies, such as
Media-Related Democracy Assistance. Congress
spyware and other surveillance tools, which can be used to
appropriates foreign assistance funds that support some
facilitate attacks against journalists. The Export Control
programs to bolster the supply of, and demand for,
Reform Act of 2018 (Title XVII, Subtitle B of P.L. 115-
independent media, as well as improve broader enabling
232) stipulates that export controls be used in part to carry
environments. In FY2021, the State Department and
out U.S. foreign policy, “including the protection of human
USAID allocated approximately $155 million for the
rights and the promotion of democracy.”
“Independent Media and Free Flow of Information” foreign
assistance program area. For FY2023, the Biden
Issues for Congress
Administration requested approximately $251 million for
Diplomatic Efforts. Some Members may consider whether
this program area. These figures include internet freedom
press freedom issues can be more effectively integrated into
programs funded by these agencies; they do not capture
U.S. bilateral and multilateral diplomacy, including whether
media-related activities categorized under other foreign
the executive branch is making sufficient use of sanctions
assistance program areas, such as civil society. Separately,
tools. Relatedly, Congress may assess whether to create
the National Endowment for Democracy, to which
State Department offices and/or senior officials focused on
Congress provides an annual appropriation (around $300
press freedom issues, as some pending legislation proposes.
million in recent years), generally devotes a substantial
Such offices/positions may effectively elevate the issue
amount of its grant resources to supporting independent
within U.S. foreign policy, while carrying possible
media. Though not considered democracy assistance, U.S.
downside risks such as insufficient bureaucratic integration
international broadcasting may help fill information gaps in
with existing relevant offices and added resource costs.
contexts where domestic independent media does not exist.
2021 Summit for Democracy Commitments. Numerous
Congress has included some relevant directives in recent
participating countries at the first Summit for Democracy
Department of State, Foreign Operations, and Related
meeting made press freedom commitments. Congress may
Programs Appropriations Acts (SFOPS). Most recently, the
wish to monitor how the United States is supporting partner
FY2022 SFOPS Act (Division K of P.L. 117-103) directs
countries to deliver on these commitments.
not less than $20 million for programs to protect freedom of
expression and independent media, and not less than $30
Foreign Assistance. Members may consider what
million for supporting and protecting threatened, harassed,
additional types of foreign assistance resources, if any, to
or attacked civil society activists and journalists.
appropriate for this issue. This could include efforts to
assess the effectiveness of existing programs and the
Targeted Sanctions. Some global and country-specific
anticipated value of recently announced executive branch
authorities allow for the imposition of economic sanctions
initiatives.
and/or visa restrictions against foreign persons responsible
for human rights violations or abuses, including against
Michael A. Weber, Analyst in Foreign Affairs
media workers. These include, for example, the Global
Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act (Title XII,
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Global Trends in Democracy and Authoritarianism: Challenges to Press Freedom


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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF12137 · VERSION 1 · NEW

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