May 2, 2022
China-Russia Relations
The People’s Republic of China (PRC or China) and the
Cooperation Organization (SCO), an intergovernmental
Russian Federation (Russia) maintain a strategic and
group mainly focused on security affairs.
multifaceted relationship with extensive military,
diplomatic, and economic connections. Although the
The PRC and Russia also enjoy strong commercial and
contemporary China-Russia relationship dates back to the
financial ties and are partners in their attempts to “de-
dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the two countries
dollarize” the global economy, which they see as beholden
also share a long, tumultuous history that has included
to the United States. Both governments express opposition
periods of security and diplomatic cooperation, fluctuations
to the use of unilateral sanctions as tools of policy.
in ideological alignment, diplomatic crises, and a border
war in the 1960s. Many experts trace the current dynamism
The PRC and Russia often cooperate and coordinate in
of the relationship to 2014, when the reaction of some
multilateral settings, including the United Nations; the
countries to Russia’s first invasion of Ukraine, including
SCO; the Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa
sanctions, led Moscow to seek to strengthen its ties to
(BRICS) grouping; and the Group of 20 (G20). The PRC
China and other countries.
and Russia have also tried to harmonize the interests of
overlapping ventures, such as the Belt and Road Initiative
The two countries’ apparent mutual affinity has led some
(BRI) and the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU).
U.S. policymakers and Members of Congress to express
concern that Beijing and Moscow constitute a de facto
PRC and Russian Perspectives
alliance, and to seek ways to counter their global influence.
PRC officials frequently describe the current moment as a
The PRC and Russia’s bilateral relationship falls short of a
“historic high” in the China-Russia relationship, with the
mutual defense pact, more closely resembling a non-
two sides mutually supporting each other’s positions on
binding alignment based on shared opposition to what they
national sovereignty, security, territorial integrity, and
describe as the U.S.-led international order. This common
economic development. For the PRC, one of the guiding
opposition has spurred cooperation between the two
principles of the relationship would seem to be flexibility,
countries, but has not fully overcome their historical
as is evident in its call to “form partnerships, not alliances,”
strategic mistrust.
which has allowed it to distance itself from some of
Russia’s behavior in the international arena. Russia’s role
Key Features of the Relationship
as a strategic partner in global affairs has at times been
Building on the foundation of the 1991 Sino-Soviet Border
disruptive for the PRC, which values access to the markets,
Agreement, the 2001 Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and
including capital markets, of the United States and Europe.
Friendly Cooperation, among other things, noted Beijing
PRC companies have typically abided by foreign sanctions
and Moscow’s satisfaction on border issues and set broad
on Russian companies in order to continue doing business
areas of cooperation ranging from economics and trade to
in Western markets.
counterterrorism. The renewal of the treaty in 2021 reflects
the overall positive trajectory of relations.
Russian concerns over China’s growth and economic
advantage often are overshadowed by the perceived
The direction of the bilateral relationship appears to reflect
benefits of greater economic, political, and military
personal ties between Chinese President Xi Jinping and
cooperation. Despite being aware of the practical benefits
Russian President Vladimir Putin, both of whom project the
of a positive relationship with the PRC, Russian
image of a close relationship. Since 2013, Xi and Putin
policymakers remain guarded and harbor skepticism toward
have met numerous times and established regular dialogue
its leaders. This includes avoiding the binding obligations
mechanisms at lower levels. In 2019, PRC and Russian
of a formal alliance, especially commitments that could
leaders announced their intention to develop a
draw it into a potential conflict over Taiwan. Russian
“Comprehensive Strategic Partnership of Coordination for a
officials appear to reject the label of a “junior” partner and
New Era,” professing a “high degree of political trust” and
seek to manage the relationship on mutually beneficial
“all-around cooperation.”
terms. Whether or not Russia can maintain equal status in
the relationship is unclear as the country’s international
Military cooperation between the PRC and Russia is
isolation following its 2022 invasion of Ukraine has made
significant, encompassing exchanges and joint exercises, as
China an even more important partner.
well as intelligence sharing and joint development of
weapons systems. In November 2021, the two sides signed
a Road Map for Military Co-operation for 2021-2025 to
guide collaboration in this sphere. The PRC and Russia are
founding members of the Eurasia-based Shanghai
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China-Russia Relations
Select Issues
relationship. According to the U.S. Energy Information
Administration, in 2019, Russia was China’s second largest
Challenging the Global Order
source of crude oil, providing approximately 15% of
The PRC and Russia view each other as partners in their
China’s total imports. That same year, crude oil accounted
efforts to challenge the U.S.-led global order. Xi and Putin
for nearly 60% of the PRC’s imports from Russia. China’s
issued a joint statement on February 4, 2022, emphasizing
transition away from coal could potentially lead to a greater
their commitment to “true multilateralism” and “respect
role for Russian hydrocarbons (including “green coal” and
[for] the rights of peoples to independently determine their
natural gas). The recently-completed Power of Siberia
own development paths,” which some analysts interpreted
Pipeline, when running at full capacity, could make China
as a blueprint for a new international order.
the second largest individual importer of Russian natural
gas, after Germany.
A number of experts contend that while the PRC and Russia
both seem to reject the current world order, their visions of
The deepening of PRC-Russia economic ties accelerated
what ought to replace it are not necessarily consistent.
starting in 2014, as Russia sought to increase ties with
Many analysts view the PRC as a “revisionist” power
countries other than the United States and European
working to change certain aspects of the existing order,
countries, which imposed sanctions on Russia following its
possibly with the intention of superseding it in the long run.
initial invasion of Ukraine. Moscow has also accelerated
PRC officials often depict China’s vision for global order as
efforts to “de-dollarize” its economy in favor of alternative
based on the principles of state sovereignty and non-
currencies, including China’s renminbi, which Beijing has
interference in domestic affairs, and contrast it with the
sought to internationalize. For more, see CRS In Focus
current order, which they describe as having subordinated
IF11885, De-Dollarization Efforts in China and Russia.
these principles to human rights and interventionism.
Russian policymakers argue that the existing global order
Impact of Russia’s 2022 Invasion of Ukraine
ignores the position and sovereignty of great powers other
Russia’s invasion of Ukraine has drawn increased scrutiny
than the United States, and denies other powers what
to the Beijing-Moscow relationship, which many analysts
Russian policymakers view as legitimate spheres of
see as a critical avenue through which Russia may be able
influence. Russia therefore attempts to push back against
to relieve the pressure of international sanctions. The PRC’s
what its leaders see as U.S. unipolar overreach, and remind
reaction to the invasion arguably is more accommodating to
the United States of Russia’s great power status and role in
Russia’s position than it was during Russia’s invasions of
the international system.
Georgia in 2008 and Ukraine in 2014. Such a change could
raise questions about the direction of PRC-Russia strategic
Defense Cooperation
cooperation and its implications for U.S. national interests.
The PRC and China are close partners in military and
For example, will the PRC’s tacit acceptance of Russia’s
defense affairs. The PRC has been a major buyer of Russian
invasion lead to a fundamental change in China’s stated
arms, which it has sought in order to modernize its growing
foreign policy? Can the PRC serve in any kind of capacity
military. As direct defense imports from Russia have
to help mediate between Russia and Ukraine? To what
decreased—partially due to Russian concerns over
extent is the PRC taking measures that can reduce the
technology transfer and intellectual property violations—
effects of sanctions by the United States and its allies and
cooperation between the two militaries has grown more
partners on the Russian economy?
complex. This is in part due to the increasing sophistication
of the PRC’s defense industry. Russia’s defense industry
Issues for Congress
relies on importing key components and investment from
U.S. policymakers, including in Congress, have identified
China for the development of advanced weapon systems.
countering PRC and Russian challenges to the current
international order as a top national security priority. Both
Current relations stress combined military exercises,
the Trump and Biden Administrations included such
developing interoperability, and increasing defense sector
language in their national security strategies. Members of
cooperation and joint arms development. Russia has sought
Congress have introduced S. 1260 and H.R. 4521, which
to increase its participation in military exercises with the
would require a series of measures aimed at increasing the
PRC, including at the strategic and tactical level, as well as
United States’ ability to compete with global competitors,
naval exercises and air patrols in the Asia Pacific region.
including by increasing investment in critical sectors and
Russia arguably conducts these exercises to develop
expanding U.S. foreign engagement and assistance. Several
interoperability with PRC forces and to signal to foreign
Members of Congress have issued statements criticizing
audiences that Russia remains a player in the Asia Pacific.
China’s support for Russia in the wake of its invasion of
The PRC likely views these military exercises as an
Ukraine, and proposing measures—including secondary
opportunity to learn from Russia’s more experienced forces.
sanctions on PRC entities allowing Russian access to the
international financial system. H.R. 7314 would require the
Energy and Economics
Department of State to report on whether and how China is
Economic relations between China and Russia are
supporting Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, and call on the
asymmetrical; China’s economy is considerably larger and
President to impose sanctions on entities aiding Russian
more dynamic. China is Russia’s second largest export
sanctions evasion. Critics of these measures argue that
market after the European Union (EU); Russia, meanwhile,
secondary sanctions have limited effectiveness, and that
is China’s ninth largest. Russia’s role as a key provider of
U.S. officials would face difficulty convincing international
PRC energy imports is a defining feature of the bilateral
partners to adopt and enforce similar measures.
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China-Russia Relations

Andrew S. Bowen, Analyst in Russian and European
Affairs
Ricardo Barrios, Analyst in Asian Affairs
IF12100


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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF12100 · VERSION 1 · NEW

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