Updated March 22, 2022
Kenya
Successive U.S. Administrations have viewed Kenya as a
elections, however, and a political storm fueled by ethnic
strategic partner and critical to counterterrorism efforts in
grievances was brewing as the next elections approached.
East Africa. It is sub-Saharan Africa’s third largest
economy, a regional finance and transportation hub, and a
Figure 1. Kenya Facts
top tourism destination known for its biodiversity. Kenya
holds a nonpermanent seat on the UN Security Council
until 2023, and is home to one of four major UN offices
worldwide. It hosts the largest U.S. embassy in Africa and
U.S. forces supporting regional counterterrorism efforts.
Kenya ranks among the top U.S. aid recipients globally.
The country’s reputation as an anchor state in a volatile
region has been threatened by periodic domestic turmoil,
including ethnic tensions and election violence. Economic
frustrations, corruption, and other abuses of power have
fueled grievances among the diverse population. Perceived
Sources: CRS, with data from CIA and IMF reference databases.
impunity has also been a source of tension with donors.
Kenya is home to over 50 ethnic groups; none constitutes a
majority. The largest group, the Kikuyu (roughly 17% of
President Uhuru Kenyatta was reelected to a second five-
the population), is perceived as historically dominating the
year term in 2017, in polls marred by violence, allegations
political class and business community. Under Kenya’s first
of rigging, and police brutality—the latest in a series of
president, Jomo Kenyatta, the Kikuyu were seen to benefit
flawed election processes since 2007. The 2017 elections
disproportionately from the allocation of state resources,
tested the independence of Kenya’s judiciary and spurred
namely land and government jobs and contracts. When
questions about its democratic trajectory. A subsequent deal
Moi, Kenyatta’s third vice president, took office after his
between Kenyatta and longtime opposition leader Raila
death in 1978, Moi’s Kalenjin group was seen as favored.
Odinga (sons of Kenya’s first president and vice president,
respectively) lessened tensions, and has led to a major
For almost 40 years, the heartlands of these communities—
reconfiguration of political allegiances. Kenyatta, who faces
the central highlands for the Kikuyu and adjacent central
term limits, has endorsed Odinga’s bid for the presidency
Rift Valley for the Kalenjin—received the greatest state
(his fifth) in the upcoming August 2022 elections over that
investment in schools, roads, and health services. Other
of Deputy President William Ruto, who also seeks the post.
areas were marginalized and remained comparatively
underdeveloped, including the predominantly Muslim coast
The Somalia-based Al Qaeda affiliate Al Shabaab poses a
and northeast, and western Kenya, home to the second and
persistent threat in Kenya, which contributes troops to the
fourth largest ethnic groups, the Luhya and Luo. This
African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM). High-
dynamic of ethnic favoritism reinforced divisions.
profile attacks in Nairobi—on a mall in 2013 and on a hotel
complex in 2019—underscore Al Shabaab’s reach. A U.S.
No ethnic group constitutes a large enough voting bloc for
service member and two U.S. contractors were killed in a
its political leaders to gain or maintain power alone; they
January 2020 attack on Manda Bay Airfield, a Kenyan base
must form alliances, which periodically shift. Ethnic
near the Somali border used by the U.S. military. Al
identity, rather than ideology, is widely seen as the primary
Shabaab says its attacks are retaliation for Kenya’s military
line of cleavage in political alignment and voting behavior.
intervention in Somalia; it labels Kenyan and U.S. military
operations there as part of a “Western crusade against
The crisis that followed Kenya’s 2007 elections is relevant
Muslims.” Studies suggest that security force abuses
to understanding its politics today. Realignments ahead of
contribute to radicalization and extremist recruitment in
those polls created a particularly volatile ethnic dynamic,
Kenya. See also CRS In Focus IF10170, Al Shabaab.
and when the incumbent, President Mwai Kibaki (a
Kikuyu), was declared the winner of a close race amid
Background
charges of rigging, opposition protests turned violent. The
Kenya was essentially a one-party state from 1964 to 1991.
violence occurred largely along ethnic lines in urban areas
Its long-serving second president, Daniel arap Moi,
and parts of the country where Kikuyu had settled after
dominated Kenyan politics through repression and electoral
independence. Some of the worst of it was in the Rift
manipulation until he retired under donor pressure in 2002.
Valley, between Kikuyu and Kalenjin, whose politicians
Elections that year were hailed as historic: for the first time,
had supported the opposition candidate, Raila Odinga (a
Kenya’s fractious and primarily ethnically based opposition
Luo). In six weeks, 1,300 people were killed, and 600,000
parties came together, defeating Moi’s chosen successor,
were displaced. Police were implicated in hundreds of
Uhuru Kenyatta. That coalition unraveled after the
deaths. Kenya was paralyzed for months before Kofi Annan
mediated a power-sharing deal in which Kibaki formed a
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Kenya
coalition government with Odinga as prime minister. A
March 2022, Kenyatta officially endorsed Odinga. Ruto’s
commission of inquiry subsequently attributed the crisis to
ICC case could re-emerge as an issue during the elections:
the manipulation of perceived ethnic marginalization by
the ICC trial of a lawyer accused of witness tampering in
politicians and a culture of impunity, among other factors.
the Kenya cases, purportedly “for the benefit of, and in
Kenya’s ICC Cases
collaboration with” Ruto, began in early 2022.
When Kenya’s parliament declined to establish a tribunal to
Refugees in Kenya
prosecute the worst crimes from the post-election crisis, the
Kenya currently hosts roughly 540,000 refugees (76% are
commission of inquiry gave a list of key suspects to Annan,
women and children), including over 286,000 Somalis and
who presented them to the International Criminal Court
136,000 South Sudanese. The government has periodically
(ICC) Prosecutor. The ICC confirmed charges against four
threatened to close the refugee camps since 2015, citing
people in 2012, including Kalenjin politician William Ruto
security concerns, particularly with the largest camp
and then-deputy Prime Minister Uhuru Kenyatta. Kenya’s
complex, Dadaab, which primarily hosts Somali refugees.
government objected to the cases, despite being an ICC
A Kenyan court blocked Dadaab’s closure in 2016, calling
state party. The cases were prominent in the 2013 elections,
it discriminatory and unconstitutional. Kenya revived the
when Kenyatta and Ruto—on opposing sides in 2007—ran
threat in 2019, and in 2021 told the UN Refugee Agency
together on a presidential ticket. They portrayed the cases
(UNHCR) that it would expel camp residents if UNHCR
as a Western conspiracy and emblematic of racial bias by
did not devise a plan to close them by June 2022. While a
the ICC. Voting largely followed ethnic lines in 2013, but
plan for the camps’ closure now exists, humanitarians say
the Kikuyu-Kalenjin combination on one ticket reduced
returns to Somalia and South Sudan are not sustainable and
prospects for violence. It was a close race: Kenyatta
have urged Kenya to offer refugees durable solutions.
avoided a runoff, against Odinga, by less than 1% of votes.
The Economy
The ICC trials were plagued by witness intimidation and
Kenya is one of Africa’s fastest growing economies, though
political interference. The Prosecutor ultimately withdrew
the economic slowdown as a result of COVID-19 caused
the charges against Kenyatta and Ruto, citing insufficient
significant hardship. Agriculture is the backbone of the
evidence. Neither was acquitted, leaving the possibility of
economy, but real estate and manufacturing have also
new charges, but allowing them to run for reelection.
driven growth. Kenya has a vibrant telecom industry that is
The 2017 Elections and The Handshake
a global pioneer in mobile banking technology. Under his
ambitious economic agenda, President Kenyatta sought to
Elections in 2017 were a major test for Kenya’s political
improve the business environment and attract foreign
institutions. Amid a polarized political landscape, several
investment, including from China, which is financing major
scandals rocked the electoral board. Civil society, election
infrastructure projects. Kenya’s debt, of which China holds
monitors, and the opposition raised concerns about ballot
a growing share, rose from 42% when Kenyatta took office
procurement, the voters’ roll, and the murder of an election
to 70% of GDP in late 2021. Development challenges
official who oversaw the results-transmission technology.
persist: Kenya has made limited progress in reducing
Election monitors gave the voting and counting processes
extreme poverty, food insecurity, and maternal mortality.
positive reviews, but noted issues with the transmission and
tallying of results. When Kenyatta was declared the winner,
U.S. Policy and Assistance
Odinga and the opposition went to Kenya’s Supreme Court,
U.S.-Kenya ties have been historically close, but human
which nullified the presidential result in a landmark ruling.
rights, governance, and corruption concerns sometimes
The court ordered a fresh election, citing “irregularities and
complicate the relationship. The Trump and Kenyatta
illegalities” in the transmission of results that “affected the
Administrations took steps to improve relations, and agreed
integrity of the poll.” The justices faced threats, including
to a “Strategic Partnership” during Kenyatta’s White House
from senior officials. Odinga boycotted the re-run. Turnout
visit in 2018. Economic and counterterrorism cooperation
dropped roughly by half, and Kenyatta won by 98%.
were discussed during the visit, and nearly $900 million in
commercial deals were announced. Direct flights, once
The opposition contested Kenyatta’s legitimacy into 2018
blocked over security concerns, started in late 2018. U.S-
and held a mock inauguration to name Odinga “the people’s
Kenya free trade agreement (FTA) negotiations began in
president.” The government termed it treasonous, cut media
2020, but are on hold as the Biden Administration reviews
coverage and arrested some opposition figures. Authorities
its trade policy priorities. See CRS In Focus IF11526, U.S.-
ignored court orders countering the crackdown, leading the
Kenya FTA Negotiations. Kenya was Secretary of State
chief justice and his predecessor to issue public warnings
Antony Blinken’s first stop on his first official trip to Africa
about threats to judicial independence and the rule of law.
in late 2021. Kenya’s current role on the U.N. Security
Kenyatta and Odinga declared a surprise deal, dubbed “the
Council has presented opportunities for collaboration on
Handshake,” to end the standoff in March 2018, and they
shared interests, including on Ethiopia and Ukraine.
launched an initiative to “foster national cohesion.” This
Kenya is routinely among the largest recipients of U.S.
eased tensions between the government and opposition, but
foreign aid and is a top recipient of U.S. security assistance
friction within the ruling coalition rose as it became
in Africa. It received over $560 million in FY2020 bilateral
increasingly apparent that Ruto did not enjoy Kenyatta’s
aid, most of it focused on health programs; the FY2022
support to succeed him. Ruto’s allies accused Kenyatta of
request includes over $505 million for Kenya. Security
pursuing an anti-corruption drive that disproportionately
force abuses, including in the context of anti-terrorism
targeted politicians linked to the deputy president, and Ruto
efforts, have posed challenges for security cooperation.
has since characterized the Handshake as a betrayal. In
Alongside State Department-managed military aid, the
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Kenya
Department of Defense has provided over $400 million in
Lauren Ploch Blanchard, Specialist in African Affairs
CT “train and equip” support to Kenya in the past decade.
IF10168
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10168 · VERSION 22 · UPDATED