Updated December 21, 2021
Defense Primer: Emerging Technologies
Both the 2018 National Defense Strategy and senior U.S.
Secretary of Defense. The CDAO is to “serve as the
defense and intelligence officials have identified a number
Department’s senior official responsible for strengthening
of emerging technologies that could have a disruptive
and integrating data, artificial intelligence, and digital
impact on U.S. national security in the years to come. These
solutions in the department,” with the Office of the CDAO
technologies include
serving as “the successor organization to the JAIC.” In
addition, the FY2019 National Defense Authorization Act
artificial intelligence,
(P.L. 115-232, §1051) established a National Security
lethal autonomous weapons,
Commission on Artificial Intelligence to assess U.S.
hypersonic weapons,
competitiveness in AI and offer recommendations to
directed energy weapons,
Congress. The commission concluded in October 2021.
biotechnology, and
quantum technology.
Lethal Autonomous Weapons
Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems (LAWS) are a class
As these technologies continue to mature, they could hold
of weapon systems capable of independently identifying a
significant implications for congressional oversight, U.S.
target and employing an onboard weapon system to engage
defense authorizations and appropriations, military concepts
and destroy the target without manual human control.
of operations, and the future of war.
LAWS require computer algorithms and sensor suites to
Artificial Intelligence
classify an object as hostile, make an engagement decision,
and guide a weapon to the target. This capability would
Although there is no official U.S. government definition of
enable the system to operate in communications-degraded
artificial intelligence (AI), AI generally refers to a computer
or -denied environments where traditional systems may not
system capable of executing tasks requiring human-level
be able to operate.
cognition. AI is currently being incorporated into a number
of military applications, including intelligence, surveillance,
LAWS are not yet in widespread development, and some
and reconnaissance; logistics; cyber operations; command
senior military and defense leaders have expressed concerns
and control; and semi-autonomous and autonomous
about the ethics of ever fielding such systems. For example,
vehicles. As it develops, AI could enable new concepts of
in 2017 testimony before the Senate Armed Services
operations, such as swarming (i.e., cooperative behavior in
Committee, then-Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
which uninhabited vehicles autonomously coordinate to
General Paul Selva stated, “I do not think it is reasonable
achieve a task), that could present both challenges and
for us to put robots in charge of whether or not we take a
opportunities for the U.S. military.
human life.” Currently, there are no domestic or
international legal prohibitions on the development of
Recent news reports and analyses have highlighted the role
LAWS; however, an international group of government
of AI in enabling increasingly realistic photo, audio, and
experts has begun to discuss the issue. Approximately 30
video digital forgeries, popularly known as “deep fakes.”
countries have called for a preemptive ban on the systems
Adversaries could potentially deploy this AI capability as
due to ethical considerations, while others have called for
part of their information operations in a “gray zone”
formal regulation or guidelines for development and use.
conflict. Deep fake technology could be used against the
DOD Directive 3000.09 establishes department guidelines
United States and its allies to generate false news reports,
for the development and fielding of LAWS to ensure that
influence public discourse, erode public trust, and attempt
they comply with “the law of war, applicable treaties,
to blackmail diplomats. Some have suggested that AI could
weapon system safety rules, and applicable rules of
be used to create full digital “patterns-of-life,” in which an
engagement.”
individual’s digital footpr
int is mapped against other
personal information, such as spending habits and job
Hypersonic Weapons
history, to create comprehensive behavioral profiles of
Hypersonic weapons—which fly at speeds of at least Mach
servicemembers, suspected intelligence officers,
5—are in development in a number of countries, including
government officials, and private citizens. Similar to deep
the United States. There are two categories of hypersonic
fakes, this information could, in turn, be used for targeted
weapons:
influence operations or blackmail.
Hypersonic glide vehicles (HGV) are launched from a
In June 2018, the Pentagon established the Joint Artificial
rocket before gliding to a target. (When HGVs are
Intelligence Center (JAIC, pronounced “jake”) to
mated with their rocket booster, the resulting weapon
coordinate defense-wide AI efforts. Effective February 1,
system is often referred to as a hypersonic boost-glide
2022, the position of Chief Digital and AI Officer (CDAO)
weapon.)
is to be established, reporting directly to the Deputy
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Defense Primer: Emerging Technologies
Hypersonic cruise missiles (HCM) are powered by
to enhance [or degrade] the performance of military
high-speed engines throughout the duration of their
personnel. The proliferation of synthetic biology—used to
flight.
create genetic code that does not exist in nature—may
increase the number of actors that can create chemical and
In contrast to ballistic missiles, hypersonic weapons do not
biological weapons” and could additionally enable the
follow a ballistic trajectory and can maneuver en route to
creation of adaptive camouflage, cloaking devices, or
their destination, making defense against them difficult.
lighter, stronger, and—potentially—self-healing body and
Currently, no such defense against hypersonic weapons
vehicle armor. U.S. adversaries may be less restrained in
exists, and experts disagree on the affordability and
both researching and applying biotechnology, particularly
technological feasibility of hypersonic missile defense
as it relates to human performance modification and
options. These options could include interceptor missiles,
biological weapons.
hypervelocity projectiles, laser guns, and electronic attack
systems.
Quantum Technology
Quantum technology, which employs the principles of
According to open-source reporting, Russia fielded its first
quantum physics, has not yet reached maturity; however, it
HGV—the Avangard—in December 2019. China has
could hold significant implications for the future of
conducted successful hypersonic weapons tests and has also
encryption and stealth technologies. GAO reports that
reportedly fielded an operational HGV. The United States is
DOD, State, DHS, and the ODNI have assessed that
unlikely to field an operational HGV system before 2023.
“quantum communications could enable adversaries to
Although HCM technology is less mature than HGV
develop secure communications that U.S. personnel would
technology, reports suggest that it could be fielded by
not be able to intercept or decrypt. Quantum computing
Russia in 2023 and by China in 2025. Other countries—
may allow adversaries to decrypt [unclassified, classified,
including France, Australia, India, Germany, and Japan—
or sensitive] information, which could enable them to target
also have research programs in hypersonic weapons.
U.S. personnel and military operations.”
Directed Energy Weapons
Quantum technology could have other military applications,
such as quantum sensing, which could theoretically enable
DOD defines directed energy (DE) weapons as those using
significant improvements in submarine detection, rendering
concentrated electromagnetic energy, rather than kinetic
energy, to “incapacitate, damage, disable, or destroy enemy
the oceans “transparent.” This could, in turn, hold
implications for the survivability of the U.S. sea-based
equipment, facilities, and/or personnel.” DE weapons—
often colloquially referred to as “lasers”—
nuclear deterrent. Quantum sensing could also provide
could be used by
alternative positioning, navigation, and timing options that
ground forces in counter rocket, artillery, and mortar (C-
could in theory allow militaries to continue to operate at full
RAM) or short-range air defense (SHORAD) missions.
performance in GPS-degraded or GPS-denied
They could offer low costs per shot and nearly limitless
environments. Military application of quantum technologies
magazines that, in contrast to existing conventional
could be constrained, however, by the fragility of quantum
systems, could enable an efficient and effective means of
states, which can be disrupted by minute movements,
defending against missile salvos and swarms of uninhabited
changes in temperature, or other environmental factors.
vehicles. Theoretically, DE weapons could also provide
options for boost-phase missile intercept, given their speed-
CRS Products
of-light travel time; however, as in the case of hypersonic
missile defense, experts disagree on the affordability and
CRS Report R46458, Emerging Military Technologies: Background
technological feasibility of this application.
and Issues for Congress, by Kelley M. Sayler.
CRS Report R45178, Artificial Intelligence and National Security,
High-powered microwave (HPM) weapons, a subset of DE
by Kelley M. Sayler.
weapons, could be used as a nonkinetic means of disabling
CRS Report R44466, Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems:
electronics, communications systems, and improvised
Issues for Congress, by Nathan J. Lucas.
explosive devices in the event of a conflict. In addition, the
U.S. military has explored using HPM in a nonlethal “heat
CRS Report R45811, Hypersonic Weapons: Background and
ray” system for crowd control; however, the system was
Issues for Congress, by Kelley M. Sayler.
recalled—likely due to ethical and operational
CRS Report R46925, Department of Defense Directed Energy
considerations.
Weapons: Background and Issues for Congress, coordinated by
Kelley M. Sayler.
Biotechnology
CRS Report R44824, Advanced Gene Editing: CRISPR-Cas9, by
Biotechnology leverages life sciences for technological
Marcy E. Gallo et al.
applications. A number of developments in biotechnology
CRS In Focus IF11836, Defense Primer: Quantum Technology, by
hold potential implications for national security. As a 2018
Kelley M. Sayler.
Government Accountability Office (GAO) report notes, the
Departments of Defense, State (State), and Homeland
Security (DHS), and the Office of the Director of National
Intelligence (ODNI), all assess that biotechnologies, such as
the low-cost gene-editing tool CRISPR-Cas9, have the
Kelley M. Sayler, Analyst in Advanced Technology and
potential to “alter genes or create DNA to modify plants,
Global Security
animals, and humans. Such biotechnologies could be used
IF11105
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Defense Primer: Emerging Technologies
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