October 4, 2021
Russian Military Exercises
The Russian military has routinely conducted two types of
Since 2013, Russia also has conducted surprise combat
military exercises: annual strategic command staff exercises
readiness inspections with increasing frequency. For
and combat readiness inspections. Many of these exercises
example, Russian officials stated that the military would
are what most analysts consider part of a military’s normal
conduct more than 4,800 readiness inspections in 2021. The
training routine. Russia uses these exercises to test military
Russian military conducts these inspections throughout the
readiness, refine operational concepts, assess new
year, and the inspections vary in size from an individual
equipment and technologies, and improve command and
unit (or subunit) to multiple units and service branches
control.
across Russia. In contrast to strategic level exercises,
readiness inspections focus on testing and improving
Russia also may use some of these exercises as a form of
mobilization and readiness capabilities.
coercive signaling toward neighboring states and foreign
audiences. Some observers are also concerned about
Coercive Signaling
Russian use of military exercises as a pretext to mask
Russia appears to use military exercises as a form of
preparations for potential and actual invasions (see below).
coercive signaling against neighboring states. Observers
In particular, the size and nature of the exercises, including
note that Russia also has used exercises to obscure the
the recently concluded Zapad 2021 joint Russian-
massing and preparation of troops for offensive operations.
Belarusian strategic exercise, have caused concern among
Prior to Russia’s 2008 war with Georgia and the 2014
U.S. and European observers, including some Members of
occupation and annexation of Ukraine’s Crimea region,
Congress. Some Members expressed concern about the
Russia massed forces under the pretext of normal military
exercise reflecting Russian aggression toward allies in the
exercises. In March and April 2021, Russia massed
region.
significant forces in Crimea and on the border with
Ukraine. Russia claimed the buildup was part of its regular
Types of Exercises
training cycle and preparations for the Zapad 2021 exercise.
Strategic command staff exercises are the culmination of
U.S. government officials and observers expressed concerns
the Russian military’s yearly training cycle (although the
that Russia was preparing a possible invasion of Ukraine.
Russian military increasingly conducts large scale exercises
throughout the year). These exercises test the military’s
Observers note that Russia employs military exercises to
ability to conduct large-scale operations. The exercises are
demonstrate its military capabilities to foreign audiences.
regular and routinized, rotating annually through Russia’s
Russia often announces snap inspections to coincide with
military districts (MD): Western (Zapad), Southern
Western or NATO exercises; some analysts interpret this as
(Kavkaz), Central (Tsentr), and Eastern (Vostok). Thus,
a Russian effort to demonstrate its military’s capability to
each MD hosts an exercise once every four years.
quickly and forcefully respond to threats. Other analysts
Separately, Russia conducts an annual exercise of its
argue that Russia’s military exercises demonstrate Russian
nuclear forces.
insecurities and concerns regarding whether it can address
perceived threats across multiple regions.
Russian Strategic Command Staff Level
Exercises
Russia’s lack of transparency increases concern regarding
its military exercises. Russia is a signatory to the Vienna
Vostok-2014 (Eastern MD)
Document, a series of confidence and security building
Tsentr-2015 (Central MD)
measures overseen by the Organization for Security and
Kavkaz-2016 (Southern MD)
Cooperation in Europe. These measures include
requirements to share information on military forces,
Zapad-2017 (Western MD)
equipment, and military exercises involving more than
Vostok-2018 (Eastern MD)
13,000 troops. Russia routinely avoids these requirements
Tsentr-2019 (Central MD)
by claiming that the number of troops involved falls under
the reporting requirement or by conducting a series of
Kavkaz-2020 (Southern MD)
smaller exercises instead of one large exercise.
Zapad-2021 (Western MD)
Note: In 2010, Russia restructured the MDs from six to four.
Military Exercises and Russia’s Military
In January 2021, the Ministry of Defense upgraded the
Modernization
Northern Fleet to an MD, bringing the total number to five.
Exercises are a crucial component of a military’s training
However, the Northern Fleet conducted exercises as part of
and preparation for conflict. In this regard, the Russian
Zapad.
military differs little from most modern militaries.
Exercises also play an important role in Russia’s military
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Russian Military Exercises
modernization efforts. The Russian military uses exercises
asserted that this figure was likely inflated, but that the
to test and refine operational concepts, command and
exercise was likely larger than previous Zapad exercises.
control, coordination across service branches, logistical
Russia ostensibly conducted the exercise under different
support, mobilization and readiness status, and new
commands to avoid the reporting requirement.
technologies. A number of concepts are relevant to an
analysis of Russia’s military exercises:
According to the Russian Ministry of Defense, “The
objectives of the exercise were to check readiness levels
Threat Perception
and the Belarusian and Russian military command bodies’
Exercises highlight the Russian military and political
ability to jointly ensure military security and territorial
leadership’s perception of current and projected threats. The
integrity.” The scenario imagined an offensive from three
scenarios of each exercise demonstrate what the Russian
Western states to conduct regime change. Russian and
military believes to be likely conflict scenarios and suggest
Belarusian forces practiced responding to an offensive (in
whom Russia views as potential opponents.
particular defending against the use of a massed aerospace
attack), deploying forces, and ultimately launching a
Warfighting
counterattack against invading forces.
The Russian military uses exercises to test and develop how
it will respond and conduct operations during a conflict.
Belarus and Russia operate a unified regional air defense
Specifically, strategic exercises focus on the Russian
system, operationally controlled by Belarus during
military’s capacity to conduct complex combined-arms
peacetime, but incorporated under Russian control during a
operations across a wide potential battlespace.
potential conflict. During the exercise, Russia emphasized
this command and control integration and interoperability
Command and Control
element. Russia and Belarus opened several training bases
Both types of exercises are designed to improve and refine
inside Belarus, including an air defense-training center, and
the military’s command and control capabilities. This
introduced two S-300PM2 surface-air-missile systems and
includes improving interoperability between service
several Su-30SM fighters at the Baranovichi air base.
branches and joint formations.
Analysts note that these events point to greater integration
of Belarus’s armed forces into Russian planning and
Operational Concepts
command, but remain far short of merging Belarus under
Russia, like most militaries, uses exercises to test new
Russian control or permanently basing Russian forces
operational concepts, changes in its force structure, and the
inside Belarus. Instead, analysts note Russia will retain a de
integration of new technologies and weapon systems. The
facto presence inside Belarus due to the constant rotation of
concepts reflect how the Russian military envisions future
forces for training and coordination purposes.
conflicts. Russian officials say that many of the lessons
learned from conflicts in Syria and Ukraine are also tested
The Zapad exercise included a significant role for the
and evaluated for incorporation into operational concepts
Northern Fleet in the Arctic, the testing of new technologies
and strategies.
and tactics (including air mobile and robotic units),
electronic warfare, the heavy use of artillery and rocket
Mobilization and Readiness Levels
forces, air defense, support from helicopter and air assets,
The military uses s nap inspections to improve and test
and the expansive mobilization and testing of the military’s
overall readiness levels. The Russian military states that
logistics and support capabilities. A central theme was
snap inspections are a crucial tool for improving and
improving coordination and interoperability among the
maintaining a heightened level of readiness. Exercises also
various units, service branches, and systems. Russia also
test the Russian military’s ability to mobilize and manage
conducted amphibious landings by naval infantry and
the movement of units to potential conflict zones.
numerous air-assault and paratroop landings, emphasizing
mobility and the rapid movement of troops to emerging
Zapad 2021
conflict areas.
Russia conducted the Zapad 2021 strategic command staff
exercise from September 10 through 16, 2021. The exercise
A significant presence of foreign troops was also in the
came amid heightened tensions with its neighbors,
exercise. Some 2,000 troops from India, Pakistan,
including Ukraine, and recent instability in Belarus . The
Mongolia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Armenia, and Sri
exercise emphasized the integration and coordination of
Lanka participated.
Belarusian armed forces with the Russian military. Due to
Russia’s previous use of military exercises to disguise
For related information, see CRS Report R46761, Russia:
preparations for offensive military action, NATO,
Foreign Policy and U.S. Relations, by Andrew S. Bowen
European, and U.S. government officials publicly raised
and Cory Welt; CRS Insight IN11651, Russian Military
concerns about the size and lack of transparency regarding
Mobilization on Ukraine’s Borders and in Occupied
the quadrennial Zapad exercise.
Crimea, by Andrew S. Bowen.
To avoid reporting requirements under the Vienna
Andrew S. Bowen, Analyst in Russian and European
Document, Belarus officially claimed only 12,800 troops
Affairs
were taking part in the Belarus exercise, including 2,500
Russian soldiers. The Russian Ministry of Defense claimed
IF11938
200,000 troops would take part in the exercise. Observers
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Russian Military Exercises
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