Updated September 30, 2021
Defense Primer: Emerging Technologies
Both the 2018 National Defense Strategy and senior U.S.
Defense’s (DOD’s) Chief Information Officer. In addition,
defense and intelligence officials have identified a number
the FY2019 National Defense Authorization Act (P.L. 115-
of emerging technologies that could have a disruptive
232, §1051) established a National Security Commission on
impact on U.S. national security in the years to come. These
Artificial Intelligence to assess U.S. competitiveness in AI
technologies include
and offer recommendations to Congress.
artificial intelligence,
Lethal Autonomous Weapons
lethal autonomous weapons,
Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems (LAWS) are a class
of weapon systems capable of independently identifying a
hypersonic weapons,
target and employing an onboard weapon system to engage
directed energy weapons,
and destroy the target without manual human control.
LAWS require computer algorithms and sensor suites to
biotechnology, and
classify an object as hostile, make an engagement decision,
quantum technology.
and guide a weapon to the target. This capability would
enable the system to operate in communications-degraded
As these technologies continue to mature, they could hold
or -denied environments where traditional systems may not
significant implications for congressional oversight, U.S.
be able to operate.
defense authorizations and appropriations, military concepts
of operations, and the future of war.
LAWS are not yet in widespread development, and some
Artificial Intel igence
senior military and defense leaders have expressed concerns
about the ethics of ever fielding such systems. For example,
Although there is no official U.S. government definition of
in 2017 testimony before the Senate Armed Services
artificial intelligence (AI), AI generally refers to a computer
Committee, then-Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff
system capable of human-level cognition. AI is currently
General Paul Selva stated, “I do not think it is reasonable
being incorporated into a number of military applications,
for us to put robots in charge of whether or not we take a
including intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance;
human life.” Currently, there are no domestic or
logistics; cyber operations; command and control; and
international legal prohibitions on the development of
semi-autonomous and autonomous vehicles. As it develops,
LAWS; however, an international group of government
AI could enable new concepts of operations, such as
experts has begun to discuss the issue. Approximately 30
swarming (i.e., cooperative behavior in which uninhabited
countries have called for a preemptive ban on the systems
vehicles autonomously coordinate to achieve a task), that
due to ethical considerations, while others have called for
could present both challenges and opportunities for the U.S.
formal regulation or guidelines for development and use.
military.
DOD Directive 3000.09 establishes department guidelines
for the development and fielding of LAWS to ensure that
Recent news reports and analyses have highlighted the role
they comply with “the law of war, applicable treaties,
of AI in enabling increasingly realistic photo, audio, and
weapon system safety rules, and applicable rules of
video digital forgeries, popularly known as “deep fakes.”
engagement.”
Adversaries could potentially deploy this AI capability as
part of their information operations in a “gray zone”
Hypersonic Weapons
conflict. Deep fake technology could be used against the
Hypersonic weapons—which fly at speeds of at least Mach
United States and its allies to generate false news reports,
5—are in development in a number of countries, including
influence public discourse, erode public trust, and attempt
the United States. There are two categories of hypersonic
to blackmail diplomats. Some have suggested that AI could
weapons:
be used to create full digital “patterns-of-life,” in which an
individual’s digital footprint is mapped against other
Hypersonic glide vehicles (HGV) are launched from a
personal information, such as spending habits and job
rocket before gliding to a target. (When HGVs are
history, to create comprehensive behavioral profiles of
mated with their rocket booster, the resulting weapon
servicemembers, suspected intelligence officers,
system is often referred to as a hypersonic boost-glide
government officials, and private citizens. Similar to deep
weapon.)
fakes, this information could, in turn, be used for targeted
influence operations or blackmail.
Hypersonic cruise missiles (HCM) are powered by
high-speed engines throughout the duration of their
To coordinate defense-wide AI efforts, the Pentagon
flight.
established the Joint Artificial Intelligence Center (JAIC,
pronounced “jake”) in June 2018 under the Department of
https://crsreports.congress.gov
Defense Primer: Emerging Technologies
In contrast to ballistic missiles, hypersonic weapons do not
create genetic code that does not exist in nature—may
follow a ballistic trajectory and can maneuver en route to
increase the number of actors that can create chemical and
their destination, making defense against them difficult.
biological weapons” and could additionally enable the
Currently, no such defense against hypersonic weapons
creation of adaptive camouflage, cloaking devices, or
exists, and experts disagree on the affordability and
lighter, stronger, and—potentially—self-healing body and
technological feasibility of hypersonic missile defense
vehicle armor. U.S. adversaries may be less restrained in
options. These options could include interceptor missiles,
both researching and applying biotechnology, particularly
hypervelocity projectiles, laser guns, and electronic attack
as it relates to human performance modification and
systems.
biological weapons.
According to open-source reporting, Russia fielded its first
Quantum Technology
HGV—the Avangard—in December 2019. China has
Quantum technology, which employs the principles of
conducted successful hypersonic weapons tests and is
quantum physics, has not yet reached maturity; however, it
expected to have an operational HGV capability by the end
could hold significant implications for the future of
of 2020. The United States is unlikely to field an
encryption and stealth technologies. GAO reports that
operational HGV system before 2023. Although HCM
DOD, State, DHS, and the ODNI have assessed that
technology is less mature than HGV technology, reports
“quantum communications could enable adversaries to
suggest that it could be fielded by Russia in 2023. Other
develop secure communications that U.S. personnel would
countries—including France, Australia, India, Germany,
not be able to intercept or decrypt. Quantum computing
and Japan—also have research programs in hypersonic
may allow adversaries to decrypt [unclassified, classified,
weapons.
or sensitive] information, which could enable them to target
U.S. personnel and military operations.”
Directed Energy Weapons
Quantum technology could have other military applications,
DOD defines directed energy (DE) weapons as those using
such as quantum sensing, which could theoretically enable
concentrated electromagnetic energy, rather than kinetic
energy, to “incapacitate, damage, disable, or destroy enemy
significant improvements in submarine detection, rendering
equipment, facilities, and/or personnel.” DE weapons—
the oceans “transparent.” This could, in turn, hold
often colloquially referred to as “lasers”—
implications for the survivability of the U.S. sea-based
could be used by
nuclear deterrent. Quantum sensing could also provide
ground forces in counter rocket, artillery, and mortar (C-
alternative positioning, navigation, and timing options that
RAM) or short-range air defense (SHORAD) missions.
could in theory allow militaries to continue to operate at ful
They could offer low costs per shot and nearly limitless
performance in GPS-degraded or GPS-denied
magazines that, in contrast to existing conventional
environments. Military application of quantum technologies
systems, could enable an efficient and effective means of
could be constrained, however, by the fragility of quantum
defending against missile salvos and swarms of uninhabited
states, which can be disrupted by minute movements,
vehicles. Theoretically, DE weapons could also provide
changes in temperature, or other environmental factors.
options for boost-phase missile intercept, given their speed-
of-light travel time; however, as in the case of hypersonic
CRS Products
missile defense, experts disagree on the affordability and
technological feasibility of this application.
CRS Report R46458, Emerging Military Technologies: Background
and Issues for Congress, by Kel ey M. Sayler.
High-powered microwave (HPM) weapons, a subset of DE
CRS Report R45178, Artificial Intel igence and National Security,
weapons, could be used as a nonkinetic means of disabling
by Kel ey M. Sayler.
electronics, communications systems, and improvised
CRS Report R44466, Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems:
explosive devices in the event of a conflict. In addition, the
Issues for Congress, by Nathan J. Lucas.
U.S. military has explored using HPM in a nonlethal “heat
ray” system for crowd control; however, the system was
CRS Report R45811, Hypersonic Weapons: Background and
recalled—likely due to ethical and operational
Issues for Congress, by Kel ey M. Sayler.
considerations.
CRS Report R46925, Department of Defense Directed Energy
Weapons: Background and Issues for Congress, coordinated by
Biotechnology
Kel ey M. Sayler.
Biotechnology leverages life sciences for technological
CRS Report R44824, Advanced Gene Editing: CRISPR-Cas9, by
applications. A number of developments in biotechnology
Marcy E. Gal o et al.
hold potential implications for national security. As a 2018
Government Accountability Office (GAO) report notes, the
CRS In Focus IF11836, Defense Primer: Quantum Technology, by
Departments of Defense, State (State), and Homeland
Kel ey M. Sayler.
Security (DHS), and the Office of the Director of National
Intelligence (ODNI), all assess that biotechnologies, such as
the low-cost gene-editing tool CRISPR-Cas9, have the
potential to “alter genes or create DNA to modify plants,
Kelley M. Sayler, Analyst in Advanced Technology and
animals, and humans. Such biotechnologies could be used
Global Security
to enhance [or degrade] the performance of military
IF11105
personnel. The proliferation of synthetic biology—used to
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Defense Primer: Emerging Technologies
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