Updated January 28, 2021
Sri Lanka
Background and Historical Setting
including efforts to reduce the authority of the executive
The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, known as
presidency.
Ceylon until 1972, is a constitutional democracy in South
Figure 1. Sri Lanka In Brief
Asia with relatively high levels of development. It is
strategically located in the Indian Ocean off the
southeastern tip of India’s Deccan Peninsula. The island
nation was settled by successive waves of migration from
India beginning in the 5th-century BC. Indo-Aryans from
northern India established Sinhalese Buddhist kingdoms in
the central part of the island. Tamil Hindus from southern
India also settled in northeastern coastal areas and
established a kingdom on the Jaffna Peninsula. Beginning
in the 16th century, Sri Lanka was colonized in succession
by the Portuguese, Dutch, and English.
Although Ceylon gained its independence from Britain
peacefully in 1948, succeeding decades were marred by
ethnic conflict between the country’s Sinhalese majority,
clustered in the densely populated South and West, and the
largely Hindu Tamil minority living in the North and East.
Following independence, the Tamils—who had attained
educational and civil service positions under the British—
increasingly faced discrimination from the Sinhalese-
dominated government, which made Sinhala the sole
official language and gave preferences to Sinhalese in
university admissions and government jobs. The Sinhalese,
who had deeply resented British favoritism toward the
Sirisena’s governing coalition began to fracture after a poor
Tamils, saw themselves not only as the majority in Sri
performance in February 2018 local elections, losing to the
Lanka, but also as a minority in a larger regional context
newly-formed Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna (SLPP) party,
that includes over 60 million Tamils in southern India.
which capitalized on rising Sinhalese ethnic nationalism. In
late 2018, Sirisena sparked a political crisis when he tried
Civil War and Subsequent Political
unsuccessfully to dismiss then-Prime Minister Ranil
Developments
Wickremesinghe of the opposition United National Party
For 26 years, from 1983 to 2009, Tamil militant separatist
(UNP), and replace him with Mahinda Rajapaksa.
group the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam (LTTE) sought
to establish a separate state or internal self-rule in the
The 2019 and 2020 Elections
Tamil-dominated areas of Sri Lanka. Political, social, and
Gotabaya Rajapaksa, brother of former President and
economic development was constrained by the ethnic
current Prime Minister Mahinda Rajapaksa, was sworn in
conflict and war between the government and the LTTE,
as president in November 2019. Gotabaya won the election
which cost an estimated 70,000-130,000 lives.
with 52.3% of total votes, while his main political rival,
Sajith Premedasa of the UNP, received 42% of the vote.
After the civil war’s violent end in May 2009, when the
Gotabaya had campaigned heavily on a platform of national
military crushed LTTE forces and precipitated a
security, pledging to suppress Islamist extremism. His and
humanitarian emergency in Sri Lanka’s Tamil-dominated
his brother’s key base of support is the Sinhalese Buddhist
north, attention turned to whether the government had the
majority. Most Tamils, who are largely Hindu or Christian,
ability and intention to build a stable peace in Sri Lanka.
as well as most Muslims, voted for Gotabaya’s opponent.
Former President (2005-2015) and current Prime Minister
Former Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe of the UNP
Mahinda Rajapaksa faced criticism for an allegedly
announced his resignation following the election. This
insufficient response to reported war crimes by government
move opened the way for Gotabaya to select his brother as
forces, a nepotistic and ethnically biased government,
prime minister. The Rajapaksas’ political base was further
increasing restrictions on media, and uneven economic
strengthened in 2020 when the SLPP won 145 of 225 seats
development. In the January 2015 presidential election,
in parliament. The SLPP, with its allies, now has over two
Mahinda was defeated by Maithripala Sirisena.
thirds support in parliament, which gives the Rajapaksas the
Parliamentary elections later in 2015 led to the formation of
supermajority needed to carry out promised amendments to
a unity government supportive of Sirisena’s reform agenda,
the constitution. In October 2020, Sri Lanka’s parliament
passed an amendment that strengthens the powers of the
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Sri Lanka
president and reverses previous reforms. The Parliamentary
step toward justice in Sri Lanka. Following the adoption of
election initially scheduled for June 2020 was rescheduled
the resolution, however, former President Sirisena backed
to August 2020 due to the Coronavirus Disease 2019
away from supporting any significant involvement of
pandemic.
international judges in a special judicial mechanism to
Many observers fear that Gotabaya’s election could lead to
prosecute war crimes. Then-High Commissioner for Human
Rights, Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein, noted steps taken by Sri
a return to nepotistic and authoritarian style government,
Lanka, but also called for a transitional justice mechanism
bring an end to the limited democratic reforms, and mark a
to deal with past human rights abuses. An Office of Missing
shift to a national security approach to dealings with the
Persons was established, and a Right to Information law
Tamil community. For the location of his swearing-in
was passed during Sirisena’s term of office. Observers
ceremony, Gotabaya chose a sacred Buddhist shrine in the
believe President Gotabaya Rajapaksa will be reluctant to
ancient capital of Anuradhapura. The shrine commemorates
fulfill previous commitments made to the U.N. Human
the defeat in the second century BC of King Elara, a Tamil
Rights Council relating to a transitional justice agenda.
Hindu king, by the Buddhist King Dutugemunu, and signals
Human Rights Watch (HRW) stated in January 2020 that
a link to ancient Sinhalese civilization.
“Respect for fundamental human rights in Sri Lanka is in
The context for the 2019 presidential election was at least
serious jeopardy following Gotabaya Rajapaksa’s election.”
partially set by the April 2019 “Easter bombings” that
HRW has also asserted that Gotabaya and his brother
killed over 250 people at several churches and hotels in Sri
Mahinda “were implicated in numerous human rights
Lanka, and highlighted security failures of the Sirisena
violations during their previous years in power.”
government. As a result, security was a key theme in the
election, which played in favor of Gotabaya Rajapaksa, a
Strategic Setting
former Secretary of Defense who is credited by many
Sri Lanka is situated near strategically important sea lanes
Sinhalese with playing a central role in defeating the LTTE
that transit the Indian Ocean. These lanes link energy-rich
in 2009 and ending the country’s 26-year-long civil war.
Persian Gulf states with the economies of Asia. Maritime
trade is increasingly integrating the Indian and Pacific
U.S.-Sri Lanka Relations
Oceans’ littoral regions. Sri Lanka and India share close,
Historically, U.S. policy toward Sri Lanka has included
long-standing historical, cultural, and religious ties. India
focus on supporting Sri Lanka’s democratic institutions,
became involved in the counter-insurgency war against the
encouraging economic development, and promoting human
LTTE following the 1987 Indo-Sri Lanka Agreement.
rights. U.S. policy has also promoted bilateral trade and
Between 1987 and 1990, India lost over 1,200 soldiers in
addressed regional geopolitical dynamics. Through foreign
this conflict before then-Indian Prime Minister Rajiv
aid and diplomacy, the United States has supported
Gandhi was killed by an LTTE suicide bomber in 1991. In a
initiatives intended to strengthen governance, democratic
virtual bilateral summit in September 2020, Indian Prime
reform, rule of law, and human rights in Sri Lanka. The
Minister Narendra Modi highlighted India’s concerns about
United States is Sri Lanka’s single-largest market,
the rights of the Tamil minority in Sri Lanka during his
accounting for approximately 25% of Sri Lankan exports.
discussion with Mahinda Rajapaksa. India, along with the
Following the Easter 2019 bombings of several churches
United States, has been an active voice for reconciliation
and hotels in Colombo, then-Secretary of State Mike
and fair elections in Sri Lanka.
Pompeo declared, “We stand with the Sri Lankan
government …
While a candidate, Gotabaya Rajapaksa stated he would
as they confront violent extremism.”
“restore relations” with China, which were not as close
Bilateral relations have encountered obstacles in recent
under Sirisena as they were under Mahinda Rajapaksa.
years. Attempts to renegotiate a Status of Forces Agreement
Under Mahinda Rajapaksa’s presidency, there was concern
(SOFA) raised opposition in Sri Lanka reportedly due to
over Sri Lanka’s deepening relationship with China,
fears that the agreement would establish U.S. bases on Sri
including China’s 2014 naval submarine visit to Sri Lanka.
Lanka and undermine the country’s sovereignty. Another
Beijing has continued to invest significantly in Sri Lanka’s
initiative that has encountered opposition is the Millennium
infrastructure. In 2017, Sri Lanka leased port facilities at
Challenge Corporation (MCC) Compact, which was
Hambantota to China for 99 years for an estimated $1.1
negotiated with the Sirisena government. The MCC board
billion. China is working with Sri Lanka to build a $13
approved a five-year $480 million Compact in 2019 aimed
billion Port City project on 660 acres of reclaimed land in
at reducing poverty through economic growth in Sri Lanka.
Colombo’s harbor. Reportedly, 43% of Sri Lanka’s loans
The board subsequently discontinued the Compact with Sri
for major projects in 2019 came from China. China’s
Lanka in December 2020 following the recommendation of
activities in Sri Lanka are part of Beijing’s Belt and Road
a Sri Lankan special committee to reject the agreement.
Initiative aimed in part at gaining access to ports in the
Indian Ocean to help secure China’s interests along vital
The United Nations, Sri Lanka, and
sea lanes. China’s economic and investment presence in Sri
Human Rights
Lanka is causing continuing concern among some strategic
Sri Lanka co-sponsored a U.N. Human Rights Council
analysts and policymakers in Washington, New Delhi, and
resolution on accountability for human rights abuses during
other capitals.
the Sri Lanka civil war that was adopted by the Council in
October 2015. The resolution followed the September 2015
Bruce Vaughn, Specialist in Asian Affairs
publication of the Report of the U.N. Office of the High
IF10213
Commissioner for Human Rights Investigation on Sri
Lanka and was viewed by many at the time as a positive
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Sri Lanka
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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10213 · VERSION 14 · UPDATED