Updated January 17, 2020
Somalia
Rebuilding the State
Figure 1. Somalia Facts
Somalia has been plagued by instability and humanitarian
crisis for decades. Since the collapse of the authoritarian
Siad Barre regime in 1991, there have been numerous
attempts to reunite Somalia’s regions, clans, and sub-clans
under a credible central authority capable of exerting
territorial control and providing services and security for
the Somali people. The formation of a federal government
in 2012 was a turning point, but Somalia still faces
considerable challenges on the path to stability.
Over the past decade, international donors have expanded
their engagement and increased their focus on development

aid, seeking to build resilience to drought; bolster economic
Source: CRS map. Data from CIA and IMF reference databases.
growth, access to government services, and political
reconciliation; expand critical infrastructure; and improve
Recent Security Developments
governance and the rule of law.
Challenges to stabilizing and securing the Somali state are
substantial. Military offensives by AMISOM and allied
With the support of donors and an African Union (AU)
Somali, Kenyan, and Ethiopian forces facilitated critical
stabilization force (known as AMISOM), the country has
gains against Al Shabaab in 2011-2012, pushing the group
made progress: U.N. officials now describe Somalia as a
out of Mogadishu and other major southern cities and ports
fragile state, rather than a failed one. Political infighting,
and depriving it of valuable revenue sources. Subsequent
clan competition, corruption, and contradictory visions for
Somalia’s system of government
offensives reclaimed additional towns and key bases.
all complicate the way
forward, however, as does an enduring Islamist insurgency.
Al Shabaab has proven resilient, however. It still controls
parts of the country, earning revenue through “taxes,”
Somalia has not held direct one-person one-vote elections
including of the illicit trades in charcoal and sugar. Experts
in decades. Foreign officials nevertheless viewed the 2012
warn of “mafia-style” extortion by the group in government
presidential election, in which parliamentarians elected the
areas, including Mogadishu. Complex assaults on
president after an internationally supported selection
AMISOM bases have killed hundreds of troops and
process and the adoption of a provisional constitution, as a
prompted the mission to realign forces, pulling back from
credible effort to reestablish central governance.
some areas that insurgents have since reoccupied.
In 2013, the United States officially recognized the Somali
Al Shabaab conducts frequent attacks in Mogadishu, likely
government for the first time in 22 years, highlighting
seeking to undermine confidence in the government and its
fragile improvements, both in terms of political
security measures. In 2016, a suicide bomber on a Somali
developments and advances against Al Shabaab, an affiliate
airliner taking off from Mogadishu detonated a bomb
of Al Qaeda. The World Bank and International Monetary
concealed in a laptop computer (it did not destroy the
Fund (IMF) also adjusted their positions on Somalia,
aircraft). In October 2017, a truck bombing in Mogadishu
making the country eligible for policy advice and technical
killed over 500 people. Al Shabaab has demonstrated its
assistance. The UK was the first Western country to reopen
ability to hit targets inside the heavily guarded Mogadishu
its embassy in Somalia, followed by China, Turkey, the
International Airport complex with mortars, striking the
United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and most East African
U.N. compound twice in 2019. Many diplomatic facilities
countries. The United States reestablished a permanent
and residences are located in the complex, including the
diplomatic presence in the capital, Mogadishu, in late 2018.
U.S. embassy. The assassination of Mogadishu’s mayor in
Somalia experienced a peaceful political transition in 2017,
August 2019 by a suicide bomber who had infiltrated his
when the parliament elected former prime minister and dual
office underscored Al Shabaab’s ability to penetrate the
U.S.-Somali national Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed, aka
government. See also CRS In Focus IF10170, Al Shabaab.
“Farmajo,” to the presidency over the incumbent. Farmajo’s
Thirteen years after AMISOM’s deployment, the timeline
government has been hamstrung by infighting, corruption,
for its exit is uncertain. AMISOM and international partners
and tensions with Somalia’s federal states. Competition
are working to help build the Somali security sector so the
among Arab Gulf states, which are among Somalia’s largest
mission can gradually transfer responsibilities. Various
investors and trade partners, has exacerbated frictions
factors constrain the effort, including funding and donor
between the federal and state governments. These tensions
coordination shortfalls, disputes between federal and state
may undermine U.S. policy interests in Somalia as the
authorities, institutional underdevelopment, and corruption.
country moves toward elections expected in late 2020/2021.
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Somalia
Work on the transition plan is nevertheless underway. The
U.S. Policy and Foreign Assistance
government has taken some notable steps to address
The United States seeks to promote political and economic
corruption in the army: several senior officers have been
stability, prevent Somalia from serving as a terrorist safe
replaced, troops have been biometrically registered to
haven, and alleviate the protracted humanitarian crisis,
eliminate “ghost soldiers” from the payroll, and salaries are
according to the State Department. Support for the Somali
now directly deposited in soldiers’ accounts to ensure
government’s state-building agenda is part of this effort.
consistent payment and reduce theft. Elite infantry units
U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM) identifies developing
trained, equipped, and mentored by the United States
security in Somalia as one of its key lines of effort.
launched a new offensive in 2019 to retake territory from
Al Shabaab south of Mogadishu. Whether regular forces
After recognizing the Somali government in 2013, the State
can hold reclaimed territory will be a key test.
Department redesignated the diplomatic unit focused on
Somalia at the U.S. embassy in Kenya as the U.S. Mission
Other Nation-Building Challenges
to Somalia in 2015. In 2016, the United States named its
The Somali federal government has struggled to overcome
first ambassador to Somalia in 25 years. A permanent
contentious clan and regional dynamics and extend its
diplomatic presence in the country was reestablished in
authority beyond Mogadishu. After more than 20 years
2018, and the U.S. embassy officially reopened in October
without central authority, the sharing of power, revenue,
2019. Bilateral relations have been complicated by the
and resources is subject to considerable national debate.
Trump Administration’s 2017 decision to list Somalia as
Many clans see a decentralized system of governance as the
one of seven countries whose citizens would be barred from
best way to share power among clans and sub-clans, but
receiving certain types of visas to enter the United States.
competition over power in Mogadishu remains a flashpoint.
The United States is Somalia’s largest humanitarian donor,
Federalism is enshrined in the provisional constitution, but
contributing over $450 million in humanitarian aid in
the charter is vague on how it should work. A constitutional
FY2019, and almost $49 million for Somali refugees in the
review process is due to conclude in mid-2020. Strains
region. Other foreign aid, including funding for AMISOM,
between federal and state authorities worsened in 2018-
totaled over $285 million in FY2019. The Administration’s
2019, and allegations of interference by Mogadishu in state
FY2020 foreign aid request proposed cuts to governance,
elections have stoked tensions ahead of elections expected
health, education, social service, and agriculture programs.
by early 2021. A draft electoral law is under consideration,
The United States has provided substantial support for
while a new petroleum law, opposed by semi-autonomous
AMISOM and Somali efforts to counter Al Shabaab. U.S.
Puntland, aims to resolve contentious revenue-sharing
support for AMISOM has totaled over $2.5 billion in the
deliberations. Meanwhile, Somaliland, which declared itself
past decade, and the United States has provided over half a
independent in 1991, maintains its autonomy from Somalia.
billion dollars in security assistance for Somali forces. In
Somalia’s efforts to rebuild are complicated by pervasive
late 2017, the United States suspended support for most of
corruption and spoilers opposed to the consolidation of state
Somalia’s forces over corruption concerns. Assistance for
authority. The government’s public financial management
the U.S.-mentored elite Danab units, meanwhile, continued.
reforms, however, have won praise from the IMF and have
Some support to non-mentored units resumed in mid-2019.
helped pave the way for Somalia to reach the decision point
U.S. forces in Somalia—estimated at 700 in 2019—have
in early 2020 for multilateral debt relief under the Heavily
engaged in “advise, assist, and accompany” missions. Two
Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative. Somalia owes
U.S. service members have been killed in such operations.
almost $5 billion in external debt (most of it accrued under
The United States has conducted airstrikes in Somalia
Siad Barre), and the United States is its largest creditor. In
against members of Al Qaeda and Al Shabaab for over a
late 2019, Congress approved in P.L. 116-94 up to $35
decade. U.S. strikes have killed key senior Al Shabaab
million for the first phase in canceling Somalia’s $1.1
operatives, including leader Ahmed Abdi Godane in 2014.
billion bilateral debt.
The United States has also conducted airstrikes against a
Humanitarian Situation
small Islamic State faction, led by a former Al Shabaab
Humanitarian conditions, exacerbated by erratic weather
cleric in northern Somalia. The tempo of airstrikes has been
patterns, are poor in much of Somalia. Of the 5.2 million
on the rise since 2015, when President Obama broadened its
Somalis estimated to need aid in 2020, 1.2 million face
justification for military action in Somalia; President Trump
crisis or emergency level food insecurity. Floods affected
authorized expanded authority for strikes there in March
over half a million people in late 2019. A locust outbreak,
2017. AFRICOM reported 35 strikes in 2017 (over twice
the worst to hit Somalia in over 25 years, has since
the number conducted in 2016), 47 in 2018, and 63 in 2019.
damaged crops and pastures. Roughly 2.6 million are
Al Shabaab attempted, unsuccessfully, to attack an airfield
internally displaced. Some 320,000 people were displaced
used by the U.S. military in central Somalia in October.
by conflict in 2018—the highest level of conflict-related
AFRICOM, in response to reports challenging its long-
displacement in four years. By U.N. estimates, 3 million
standing assertion that U.S. strikes had not killed civilians
children are not in school, one in seven children die before
in Somalia, commenced a review in 2019, subsequently
their fifth birthday, and a majority of women have
acknowledging two civilian deaths in 2018. The command
undergone female genital mutilation. Funding shortfalls and
pledged to strengthen its process for addressing allegations.
attacks against aid workers threaten relief programs, and Al
Shabaab restricts humanitarian aid activities in areas it
Lauren Ploch Blanchard, Specialist in African Affairs
controls. Many Somalis rely on remittances from family
abroad, which are estimated at over $1 billion annually.
IF10155
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Somalia


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https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10155 · VERSION 13 · UPDATED

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