Updated October 28, 2019
South Sudan
Peace has been elusive in South Sudan, which became the
Figure 1. South Sudan Key Facts
world’s newest country in 2011. Nearly 400,000 people are
estimated to have died as a result of a civil war that began
in 2013. The war has displaced over four million people,
including over two million refugees who have fled to
neighboring countries. It is Africa’s largest refugee crisis.
Background and Context
South Sudan’s independence from Sudan, supported by the
United States, came after a vote for secession in 2011,
following almost 40 years of rebellion against the Sudanese
government. That war, which displaced over four million
people and led to as many as two million deaths, inhibited
the development of basic infrastructure, human capital, and
Source: CRS map. Facts from CIA and IMF reference databases.
formal civilian institutions in the south. Humanitarian needs
The Return to War
persisted after independence, despite abundant natural
The political dispute that triggered the crisis in 2013 was
resources, including oil fields that once generated 75% of
Sudan’s
not based on ethnic identity, but it overlapped with existing
oil production. Corruption and malfeasance slowed
ethnic and political grievances, spurring targeted ethnic
post-war recovery and development. With secession, South
killings and clashes in the capital, Juba, and then beyond.
Sudan gained its sovereignty, but by many accounts its
At the outbreak of the conflict, President Salva Kiir accused
population lacked a common identity—despite a shared
Machar of attempting a coup. Hundreds died in attacks
history of trauma and marginalization—and its leaders,
reportedly targeting Machar’s Nuer ethnic group in Juba.
former rebels, had little experience in governing.
Revenge attacks against Kiir’s group, the Dinka, followed.
South Sudan’s current conflict reflects tensions among its
Machar and several senior Nuer military commanders
leaders and ethnic groups that date back to Sudan’s civil
subsequently declared a rebellion. The ensuing war pitted
war. While that war was described broadly as a north-south
government forces and militia loyal to Kiir against those
struggle, it also featured infighting among southern rebel
aligned with Machar, spurring a mass humanitarian crisis.
commanders in the 1990s that nearly derailed the southern
The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD;
bid for self-determination. Leaders in the insurgency, the
Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/
an East African regional body) sought to mediate a peace
deal, but the parties repeatedly violated their commitments
SPLA), competed for power and mobilized supporters
to cease hostilities. In August 2015, under threat of a
along ethnic lines. All sides committed atrocities. The
proposed arms embargo and other sanctions, they finally
government in Khartoum fueled SPLM divisions by
signed a peace agreement. Kiir did so with reservations,
financing breakaway factions. The factions reconciled in
calling the deal an attack on South Sudan’s sovereignty.
the early 2000s, before Khartoum and the SPLM signed the
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005.
The parties delayed implementation of the deal until April
After the CPA, the SPLM became the south’s ruling party.
2016, when they formed a new Transitional Government of
National Unity (TGNU), six months behind schedule.
Ethnic tensions and interpersonal rivalries grew under the
Machar returned to Juba to become First Vice President and
strain of new governing responsibilities, amid severe
a new cabinet was appointed. Sporadic clashes continued,
human, institutional, and infrastructure capacity constraints.
though, and violence spread to areas that had previously
The country was awash in small arms, and local ethnic
been comparatively stable. The deal collapsed in July 2016,
violence was increasingly politicized. Maneuvering ahead
when a series of incidents between the parties’ forces in
of planned 2015 elections added to these dynamics. Work
Juba sparked days of intense fighting. Machar and others in
on a new constitution stalled, and a political struggle among
the opposition fled the country, pursued by Kiir’s forces to
senior officials unfolded. A July 2013 cabinet reshuffle, in
the border of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Machar
which President Kiir dismissed his vice president, Riek
was subsequently airlifted to Sudan for medical treatment,
Machar, and other key officials, formalized a major fissure
and later traveled to South Africa, where by some accounts
in the ruling party. Tensions rose as Machar and others
he was placed under de-facto house arrest.
publicly accused Kiir of becoming increasingly dictatorial.
The war resumed. Both sides claimed commitment to the
Those tensions erupted in December 2013. What began as a
2015 deal, while accusing each other of abrogating it. Kiir
conflict among the presidential guard ultimately split the
sought to maintain the appearance of a unity government,
military, largely along ethnic lines. Ethnic militia mobilized
replacing Machar with Machar’s ally-turned-rival, Taban
behind their respective political leaders, and the country
Deng, and dismissing opposition cabinet ministers and
slipped into war. Uganda provided initial military support
legislators loyal to Machar. Machar continued to lead the
to the government and has facilitated arms imports.
main armed opposition faction from exile. The insurgency
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South Sudan
against Kiir’s government spread and fractured, with new
since the war began. The U.N. High Commissioner for
groups emerging and defections from both sides. The war
Human Rights has described government efforts to hold
moved into the southern Equatoria region, spurring a
perpetrators of abuses accountable as “few and inadequate.”
refugee surge into Uganda and affecting vital trade routes.
U.N. sanctions monitors report that the war has caused a
Another Peace Deal
“systemic breakdown of South Sudanese society,” and that
The international community has deferred to IGAD, which
“exclusion of competing tribal groups from political power
has maintained a commitment to “revitalizing” the 2015
has become a principal aim of many protagonists.” While
peace deal. Sudan, to the surprise of many, took on the role
political reconciliation is possible, rebuilding trust among
of lead mediator in mid-2018, with its former rival, Uganda,
communities affected by ethnic violence will be a longer-
in a supporting role. Kiir, Machar, and several other
term challenge. Grievances over abuses have fueled the
opposition leaders signed a new deal in September 2018,
conflict, and the public reportedly has little confidence in
reportedly under significant pressure from Sudan, which
the justice system. An African Union Commission of
had struck its own deal with Juba over oil revenues. Other
Inquiry has emphasized the need for accountability for
opposition leaders rejected the deal, contending that it
atrocities, a task for a proposed hybrid court per the 2015
failed to address the war’s root causes.
peace deal. The government has delayed its establishment.
While a ceasefire between the signatories has led to a lull in
International Responses to the Crisis
fighting, progress in implementing the new deal has been
The international community has mobilized humanitarian,
limited. In May 2019, the parties delayed a deadline to form
peacekeeping, and diplomatic resources to respond to
a transitional unity government until November. The
needs, protect civilians, and seek an end to the conflict. The
government-held capital remains highly militarized, and
United States is by far the largest donor, providing over
without the agreed-upon security arrangements in place, the
$4.5 billion in humanitarian aid since the war began. The
opposition has called for another delay. The parties have
U.N. Security Council authorized UNMISS’s expansion
failed to reach agreement on a key political dispute: the
when the war began, modifying its mandate to focus on
number of states. With another deadline set to pass, some
four key tasks: protecting civilians, monitoring and
question whether there is sufficient political will to prevent
investigating human rights abuses, facilitating aid delivery,
a return to war and have called for contingency planning.
and supporting a cessation of hostilities. The Council again
Whether the 2018 deal is a viable framework for
increased UNMISS’s troop ceiling after the war resumed in
sustainable peace remains subject to debate. The
2016, and authorized a new regional protection force within
International Crisis Group has described the agreement as
the mission to improve security in Juba. The government
“peace on paper,” rather than a real political settlement.
objected, citing sovereignty concerns, and slowed the
Impact of the Conflict
force’s deployment. UNMISS presently has just over
14,200 troops, well below its authorized size of 17,000.
The humanitarian situation remains dire. Insecurity has
disrupted farming cycles, grazing patterns, and trade routes;
The Security Council established a framework for targeted
local markets have collapsed. Inflation has made basic
sanctions in early 2015 and has designated eight
goods unaffordable to many, even in urban areas. Seasonal
commanders, including the current and former army chiefs.
rains, violence, and government restrictions hinder aid
It authorized an arms embargo in July 2018.
efforts. In 2017, U.N. agencies declared 100,000 people to
U.S. Policy and Foreign Assistance
be in famine. A humanitarian surge alleviated the severity
The United States, which played a key role in facilitating
of the crisis, but experts warn famine could return should
the CPA and South Sudan’s independence, is the country’s
violence constrain humanitarian access. Of the estimated 10
largest bilateral aid donor and has a lead role in U.N.
million who remain in the country, more than 7 million
Security Council deliberations. Congressional engagement
need aid, with 4.5 million acutely food insecure.
has historically been driven by humanitarian and human
U.N. officials assert that targeted attacks against civilians,
rights concerns. The current conflict and prior allegations
humanitarians, and U.N. personnel in South Sudan may
of corruption and security force abuses have strained the
constitute war crimes or crimes against humanity. The U.N.
bilateral relationship. The Trump Administration has
Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) reports that, from the
expressed concern with the humanitarian crisis, and some
outset of the conflict, “Civilians were not only caught up in
senior Administration officials have been vocal critics of
the violence, they were directly targeted, often along ethnic
South Sudan’s government. Trump has not filled the special
lines.” The U.N. Commission on Human Rights in South
envoy post, vacant since late 2016. Twelve people have
Sudan suggests that ethnic cleansing has occurred. Forces
been designated for sanctions under Executive Order
on both sides have reportedly committed widespread sexual
13664, which issued in 2014. The Trump Administration
violence. A July 2016 attack on a residence for aid workers
has also sanctioned three business associates of senior
in Juba, during which Americans were assaulted and a local
government officials for corruption on authority granted by
journalist killed, highlighted the dangers facing aid workers
the Global Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act.
and other expatriates. Per U.N. reports, over 100 aid
workers (most local) have been killed. UNICEF estimates
While humanitarian aid to South Sudan remains substantial,
that as many as 19,000 child soldiers have been recruited.
U.S. development assistance has declined in recent years.
The State Department’s FY2020 request includes $65
Over 190,000 people continue to seek refuge at UNMISS
million for South Sudan to support peace, civil society,
bases, including almost 30,000 in Juba alone. Many
education, health, water/sanitation, and resilience programs.
reportedly fear that they may be targeted based on political
or ethnic affiliation if they leave. A 2016 U.N. survey found
Lauren Ploch Blanchard, Specialist in African Affairs
that 70% of the women in the camp in Juba had been raped
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South Sudan
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