Updated August 13, 2019
U.S.-North Korea Relations
North Korea has posed one of the most persistent U.S.
Over the course of this engagement, the DPRK leader has
foreign policy challenges of the post-Cold War period.
pledged in writing to “work toward complete
With advances in its nuclear and missile capabilities under
denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula,” and pledged to
35-year-old leader Kim Jong-un, North Korea has evolved
allow the “permanent dismantlement” of nuclear facilities
into a grave security threat to the United States. Efforts to
in Yongbyon, “as the United States takes corresponding
halt North Korea’s nuclear weapons and ballistic missile
measures.” In addition, North Korea has declared and
programs have occupied the past four U.S. administrations.
abided by a unilateral moratorium on nuclear tests and on
Although North Korea (officially known as the Democratic
long-range and medium-range ballistic missile test
People’s Republic of Korea, or DPRK) has haltingly
launches. Pyongyang has not conducted test launches of
engaged in negotiations with the United States under the
these devices since November 2017, but since May 2019
Trump Administration, it simultaneously has continued to
has tested short-range missiles multiple times. North Korea
develop these programs. The weapons programs have been
has also continued to produce fissile material and developed
the primary focus of U.S. policy toward North Korea, but
a submarine capable of carrying ballistic missiles.
other U.S. concerns include North Korea’s cyberspace
activities, conventional military capabilities, egregious
South Korean President Moon is a champion of engagement
human rights violations, international terrorism, and illicit
with North Korea, and has applauded U.S. efforts to
activities such as money laundering, smuggling, and
negotiate with Pyongyang. Tensions on the Korean
trafficking of both narcotics and humans.
Peninsula have fallen markedly since early 2018, when
there was considerable debate about whether the United
States would and should conduct a preventive strike against
North Korea to disable at least part of its WMD
infrastructure.
U.S. and International Sanctions on
North Korea
In 2016 and 2017, the Obama and Trump Administrations
responded to North Korean nuclear and missile tests by
expanding multilateral sanctions. Collectively, U.N.
Security Council sanctions prohibit North Korea from
exporting over 80% of the items it sold abroad in 2016, as

well as most types of financial interactions with DPRK
Source: Map generated by CRS using Department of State
individuals and entities. Important North Korean imports,
Boundaries (2011); Esri (2014); DeLorme (2014).
such as oil, are prohibited or capped. Additionally, in 2016
The U.S. Approach to North Korea
and 2017 Congress passed, and Presidents Obama and
Trump signed, legislation expanding U.S. sanctions (P.L.
Under the Trump Administration, North Korea policy has
veered from a “maximum pressure” campaign that sought
114-122 and P.L. 115-44). Both Administrations have
issued executive orders and designations authorizing and
to punish North Korea through international sanctions for
applying sanctions against North Korean entities. In
its repeated nuclear and missile tests to an approach that
September 2017, for instance, the Trump Administration
emphasizes leader-to-leader meetings and includes a less
issued an executive order that authorizes secondary
vigorous application of sanctions. In March 2018, President
sanctions, including on any individual or entity that
Trump agreed to hold a summit with Kim to discuss North
Korea’s weapons of mass destruction (WMD) programs.
conducts trade with North Korea and on any foreign
financial institution that conducts transactions related to
Since then, Trump and Kim have held three meetings: in
DPRK trade.
Singapore (June 2018); Hanoi (February 2019); and
Panmunjom (June 2019), which is inside the demilitarized
Despite the emphasis on diplomacy since early 2018, these
zone that separates the two Koreas.
sanctions remain in place. Several countries, however,
appear to be less robustly enforcing international sanctions
Kim has also engaged in international diplomacy: after not
against the DPRK than before the rapprochement began.
holding any summits during his first six years in power,
The United Nations has documented North Korea’s efforts
since March 2018 he has met on five occasions with
to evade sanctions, including ship-to-ship transfers of oil
Chinese President Xi Jinping, three with South Korean
and coal in the waters off China and Russia’s coasts.
President Moon Jae-in, and one with Russian President
Additionally, although the Trump Administration
Vladimir Putin.
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U.S.-North Korea Relations
periodically has issued North Korea sanctions designations,
priority, however, appears to be preventing what it calls
it has refrained from applying them as aggressively as it
“chaos and war.” Chinese analysts state that Beijing fears
could, particularly in the area of secondary sanctions.
the destabilizing effects of a humanitarian crisis, including
significant refugee flows over its borders and the
Nuclear, Missile, and Cyber Capabilities
uncertainty of how other nations, particularly the United
North Korea has said its nuclear weapons are a deterrent to
States, would assert themselves on the Korean peninsula if
prevent an attack by the United States. In May 2017,
a power vacuum develops.
Director of National Intelligence Dan Coats testified that
the United States knew little of North Korea’s nuclear
North Korea’s Human Rights Record
doctrine, but reiterated previous assessments that
The plight of many North Koreans is dire. Reports by the
“Pyongyang’s nuclear capabilities are intended for
U.S. government and private organizations portray extreme
deterrence, international prestige, and coercive diplomacy.”
human rights abuses by the North Korean government over
Some analysts worry that the DPRK may become
many years. Multiple reports describe a system of prison
emboldened to launch attacks if it believes it has developed
camps that house approximately 100,000 political prisoners.
a sufficiently robust deterrent, or to use nuclear blackmail
In 2016, the State Department—acting in accordance with
to achieve other policy objectives. In its 2019 worldwide
The North Korea Sanctions and Policy Enhancement Act of
threat assessment for Congress, the U.S. intelligence
2016 (P.L. 114-122)—identified Kim and other DPRK
community said that North Korea “… is unlikely to give up
officials as responsible for human rights violations and
all of its nuclear weapons and production capabilities, even
created requirements for the President to certify human
as it seeks to negotiate partial denuclearization steps to
rights improvements in order to suspend or terminate
obtain key U.S. and international concessions.”
sanctions. In 2014, a U.N. Human Rights Council
commission concluded that North Korea had committed
North Korea has tested six nuclear devices: in 2006, 2009,
“crimes against humanity” and argued that the individuals
2013, twice in 2016, and in 2017. The DPRK government
responsible should face charges at the International
stated on September 3, 2017, that it had successfully tested
Criminal Court.
a hydrogen (thermonuclear) bomb that can be mounted on
an intercontinental ballistic missile. Notwithstanding Kim’s
Internal Situation
denuclearization pledges, North Korea continues to produce
Since assuming power in December 2011, Kim appears to
fissile material for nuclear weapons. Since the Six-Party
have consolidated his hold on power. Kim has engaged in
nuclear talks (among China, Japan, North Korea, Russia,
several purges of high-level North Korean officials. In
South Korea, and the United States) broke down in 2009,
2018, he declared the nuclear component of his byungjin
North Korea has restarted its plutonium-production reactor
policy of simultaneously pursuing economic and nuclear
and has openly built a uranium enrichment plant (other
weapons development had succeeded, allowing him to
clandestine enrichment facilities likely exist).
focus on North Korean’s economy going forward.
North Korea conducted four missile tests between July and
Although most North Koreans still live in meager
November 2017 that are widely believed to have
circumstances, particularly outside of Pyongyang, the
intercontinental range. Reportedly, analysis from the
DPRK economy as a whole appears to have expanded
Defense Intelligence Agency has found that North Korea
during Kim’s tenure. Previously prohibited markets
has successfully developed a nuclear warhead that is
containing many consumer goods and a range of services
“miniaturized” or sufficiently small to be mounted on long-
have proliferated throughout the country, perhaps providing
range ballistic missiles, and may have produced up to 60
a cushion against external economic pressure. Overall
warheads. Security experts and U.S. officials have also
growth appears to have fallen in 2017 and 2018, perhaps
voiced concerns about Pyongyang’s improving cyber
due to sanctions, which have led to the virtual collapse of
operations, which the regime may use for retaliation,
DPRK exports. Nevertheless, there are few signs of severe
coercion, espionage, and/or for financial gain.
economic distress.
China’s Role
In addition, Pyongyang appears to be losing its ability to
The flurry of diplomatic activity starting in 2018 has
control information inflows from the outside world.
rekindled DPRK-China relations, which had been deeply
Surveys of DPRK defectors reveal that growing numbers of
strained since Kim took power in 2011. U.S. policy to
North Koreans are wary of government propaganda and
pressure North Korea depends heavily on China. In addition
have ways to access outside sources of news.
to being North Korea’s dominant trading partner, China
reportedly provides food, crude oil, and investment that are
Emma Chanlett-Avery,
essential lifelines for the regime in Pyongyang. China has
Mark E. Manyin, Specialist in Asian Affairs
voted for all 10 sanctions resolutions at the U.N. Security
Council, and Trump Administration officials say Beijing
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generally is enforcing these sanctions. China’s overriding

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U.S.-North Korea Relations



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