Updated June 6, 2019
Sudan
On April 11, 2019, Sudan’s military removed President
called for increased pressure to ensure a swift transfer of
Omar al Bashir from office after three decades in power.
power to civilians in S.Res. 188 and in correspondence.
Four months of near-daily protests across the country had
Figure 1. Sudan Key Facts
shaken the government, and in early April, huge crowds
gathered in front of the military’s headquarters in Khartoum
to demand regime change. The protests, triggered by
austerity measures amid an economic crisis, were fueled by
a range of grievances against the ruling National Congress
Party (NCP) and Bashir, who took power in a 1989 coup.
The trajectory of the post-Bashir transition in Sudan is
uncertain, as the Transitional Military Council (TMC) that
ousted Bashir defies calls for a transfer to civilian rule. The
African Union (AU), which has expressed support for the
democratic aspirations of the Sudanese people and
condemned what it terms a coup d’état, has demanded that

the TMC cede authority to civilians by June 30. Under
Sources: CIA World Factbook and IMF, 2018.
pressure, the TMC participated in talks with a coalition of
Background
opposition groups and professional unions, the Forces for
Freedom and Change (FFC). They reached agreement on
Sudan, when unified (1956-2011), was Africa’s largest
some aspects of a transitional arrangement, in which
country. In 2011, after decades of fighting often broadly
elections would be held in 2022, but remain at odds over
described as a conflict between the predominately Muslim
the role of military leaders in an interim government.
“Arab” north and non-Muslim “African” south, Sudan split
in two. The split did not resolve Sudan’s other conflicts;
Sudan’ pro-democracy protesters have sought to pursue
overlapping struggles between security forces and rebels,
change through non-violent resistance. They maintained a
nomadic and farming communities, and among ethnic
large sit-in for almost two months before it was violently
groups have caused extensive displacement and suffering.
dispersed on June 3. Over 100 people were reportedly killed
Northern regimes espousing Islamist ideals have dominated
in that attack, led by the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces
government for much of Sudan’s post-independence
(RSF), which has roots in the notorious Janjaweed militia.
history, despite its diversity, pressing distant provinces to
The RSF remains heavily deployed in the capital, and
conform to the riverine heartland, rather than
reports of serious abuses, including rapes, abductions, and
accommodating local customs and institutions. Instead of
killings have emerged, amidst an internet shutdown.
forging a national identity, these policies exacerbated the
Sudan’s military has a long history of intervention in
country’s racial, cultural, and religious differences.
politics (Bashir’s 1989 coup was the country’s fourth).
Attempts to Arabize and Islamize the south sparked
Military leaders played prominent roles in Bashir’s regime,
insurgencies. Groups in other regions also rose up
and the extent to which the TMC represents a break from
periodically, citing local grievances. Some in the states of
the NCP is debated. Tensions between the military and the
Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile joined the southern
RSF are reportedly rising, increasing fears that fractures
rebels, the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM).
within the security forces could be destabilizing.
The north-south wars took a heavy toll. In 2005, the
With rampant inflation, a foreign currency shortage, and a
government and the SPLM signed the Comprehensive
heavy debt burden, Sudan needs international support to
Peace Agreement (CPA), which enshrined the south’s right
stabilize its economy. Its $1.3 billion in debt arrears to the
to self-determination after a six-year “interim period.”
International Monetary Fund restrict access to international
Southern Sudanese voted overwhelmingly in January 2011
financing, as does its designation by the United States as a
to secede and achieved independence in July of that year.
State Sponsor of Terrorism. Saudi Arabia, the United Arab
South Sudan’s secession was a major financial blow to
Emirates, and Egypt have supported the TMC politically
Sudan, which lost 75% of its oil production, two-thirds of
and financially, and by some accounts may have played a
export earnings, and over half its fiscal revenues. A bloated
role in facilitating Bashir’s ouster. The UAE and Saudi
security sector budget, mismanagement, and corruption
Arabia have offered $3 billion in aid, but economists say it
have all compounded Sudan’s economic troubles. The
will only provide short-term relief. The European Union
International Monetary Fund assesses that U.S. sanctions
says it stands ready to assist “as soon as a civilian transition
also undermined economic growth. Major U.S. enforcement
takes place.” The United States has suspended talks on
actions for sanctions violations in 2014-2015 significantly
easing sanctions and sought to mobilize support for a
reduced Sudan’s access to U.S. dollars and further impeded
civilian-led transition. Some Members of Congress have
its access to international financial markets and institutions.
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Sudan
While disputes remain, relations between Sudan and South
Sudan’s Foreign Relations
Sudan have improved in recent years. Sudan surprised
Strategically positioned on the Red Sea, Sudan’s political
many when it mediated a new peace deal between South
trajectory is of interest to an array of foreign actors. Egypt’s
Sudan’s warring parties in 2018. The deal, if it holds, would
engagement is driven by domestic political considerations
allow oil production in fields shut by South Sudan’s civil
and its concerns about the flow of the Nile. Sudan’s former
war to resume, generating needed revenue for both
ties with Iran and links to the Muslim Brotherhood under
countries. Rebel activity along the countries’ shared border
Bashir strained its relations with key Arab Gulf countries,
complicates the border’s demilitarization, as does the
which are important sources of investment. In 2014,
unresolved status of contested areas, notably Abyei, which
struggling with the loss of oil revenue and under mounting
was granted special semi-autonomous status in the CPA.
pressure from Saudi Arabia, Sudan severed relations with
An official referendum for Abyei residents on whether to
Tehran. It joined the Saudi-led coalition in Yemen in 2015,
retain their special status in Sudan or join South Sudan was
reportedly deploying as many as 14,000 troops, some
slated for 2011 but has been delayed indefinitely. The
underage, in return for Gulf aid. Bashir’s refusal to cut ties
deployment of the U.N. Interim Force for Abyei (UNISFA)
with Qatar was a source of tension with the Saudis and
defused a violent standoff in 2011, but local tensions still
Emiratis. Sudanese officials worked to repair relations with
have the potential to spur a larger conflict.
the United States, but Bashir also engaged Russia, already a
Conflicts
top weapons source, seeking to expand cooperation and
offering to host Russian naval facilities. Russian security
The CPA did not resolve longstanding center-periphery
contractors have been increasingly active there.
tensions in Sudan. Successive governments have responded
to the political demands of restive regions more often with
U.S. Policy and Foreign Assistance
force than reform and have financed local militias to help
U.S. relations with Sudan have been turbulent for three
counter insurgencies. Those militias have been linked to
decades. The United States restricted aid after the 1989
indiscriminate and disproportionate attacks on civilians.
coup, and in subsequent years imposed a range of sanctions
U.N. experts continue to document violations of an arms
through Executive Orders and congressional measures.
embargo and ban on offensive military overflights
Restrictions on U.S. engagement are based on Sudan’s debt
established in Security Council resolution 1591 (2005).
arrears, links to international terrorism, and pervasive
Darfur. Violence continues to plague the Darfur region of
human rights violations. The State Department has
western Sudan, where peace remains elusive. The
designated Sudan as a Country of Particular Concern under
government launched a major offensive in early 2016 that
the International Religious Freedom Act.
led to mass displacement. Fighting has diminished since
Sudan has long sought relief from U.S. sanctions. The
Bashir declared a ceasefire in mid-2016, with some rebels
Obama Administration moved to ease them in January 2017
withdrawing to Libya to regroup. U.N. monitors report that
as part of a bilateral reengagement effort, after determining
significant clashes between government forces and one
Sudan had taken positive steps on five “tracks”: enhancing
rebel faction resumed in 2018. Sporadic skirmishes,
counterterrorism cooperation; ceasing hostilities in conflict
intercommunal violence, and attacks on peacekeepers, aid
zones; improving humanitarian access; ending negative
workers, and civilians persist. Nevertheless, the African
interference in South Sudan; and addressing the threat of a
Union-U.N. Hybrid Operation in Darfur (UNAMID) is
regional armed group, the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA).
withdrawing, with plans for the last troops to leave in 2020.
In October 2017, the Trump Administration reported that
In 2005, the U.N. Security Council granted the International
Sudan had sustained positive actions on the five tracks and
Criminal Court jurisdiction over serious crimes committed
permanently revoked certain sanctions. Others remain in
in Darfur. The TMC has rejected calls to extradite Bashir to
place, and in November 2018, despite reports of backsliding
the Hague, where he is wanted on Darfur-related charges of
on some tracks, the Administration announced “Phase II” of
war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide.
the bilateral engagement framework. Under Phase II, the
Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile. The conflict in these
Administration would consider rescinding Sudan’s 1993
states, often referred to as “the Two Areas,” is driven by
State Sponsor of Terrorism designation if the country met
unresolved grievances that date back to the north-south war,
the statutory criteria and made further progress on the
when some local groups joined the SPLM rebellion. The
original tracks and other areas of longstanding U.S.
CPA set out a process by which the two states might
concern, including human rights, religious freedom,
achieve greater autonomy within Sudan, but it stalled and
outstanding terrorism-related claims, and Sudan’s relations
the conflict reignited in 2011. The Sudanese government
with North Korea. The United States has suspended Phase
has restricted aid agencies’ access to rebel-held areas.
II discussions as it calls for a civilian-led transition.
Humanitarian Situation
Development aid for Sudan is extremely limited, and debt
relief is restricted by Congress in annual appropriations.
Sudan began 2019 with over 5.7 million people in need of
The State Department requested $1.5 million in
aid, a situation expected to worsen in the lean season mid-
nonemergency aid for FY2020, to support civil society and
year. Roughly 1.8 million Darfuris are displaced internally,
consensus-building. The United States has provided over
and Chad hosts over 330,000 Darfuri refugees. IDP
$378 million in humanitarian aid in FY2018-FY2019.
estimates for Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile vary; South
Sudan and Ethiopia host over 300,000 refugees from those
Lauren Ploch Blanchard,
areas. Over 30,000 people are displaced in Abyei. Sudan
hosts over 900,000 refugees, most from South Sudan.
IF10182
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Sudan


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