March 8, 2019
Strategic Competition and Foreign Policy: What is “Political
Warfare�
In recent years, scholars have formed a consensus around
with the United States are becoming increasingly
the notion that the United States has reentered an
economically dependent on China. At what point does
international strategic competition with other great powers,
this interdependence, potentially underpinned by greater
notably Russia and China. This great power competition
reliance on China-led economic institutions, alter the
has political, economic and military dimensions, with
security calculus of U.S. Allies and partners?
potentially far-reaching implications for U.S. foreign and
national security policy.
Altogether, these events underscore to many observers that
the United States must be prepared to compete with other
Background
powers— powers that are willing to employ both military
Most observers of contemporary international security
and nonmilitary means to accomplish their objectives and
trends contend that the United States and its allies are
potentially reshape the world order.
entering an era of unprecedented— and dangerous—
strategic complexity. In particular, the 2014 Russian
Strategic Competition and the 2017 U.S. National
invasion of the Crimean peninsula and subsequent proxy
Security Strategy
war in eastern Ukraine was arguably a watershed moment
In response, the Trump Administration has framed the
in international security, as it awakened dormant concerns
emerging global geopolitical landscape as one characterized
about an aggressive and revanchist Russia. Months before
by strategic competition. The 2017 U.S. National Security
Russia’s Crimea intervention, China began a territorial
Strategy (NSS) notes:
expansion as well, building artificial islands on disputed
features in the South China Sea which it later turned into
China and Russia challenge American power,
military outposts.
influence, and interests, attempting to erode
American security and prosperity. They are
Complicating matters some states are collaborating with
determined to make economies less free and less
non-state proxies (including, but not limited to, militias,
fair, to grow their militaries, and to control
criminal networks, corporations and hackers) and
information and data to repress their societies and
deliberately blurring the lines between “conventional†and
expand their influence… [these challenges] are
irregular conflict. Some states are also sowing confusion as
fundamentally contests between those who value
to what constitutes “civilian†versus “military†activities.
human dignity and freedom and those who
Recent events involving China and Russia have raised a
oppress individuals and enforce uniformity
number of questions that highlight this complexity:
(page 2, emphasis added).
 Are sales of Chinese multinational Huawei’s 5G
In other words, these global geopolitical friction points are
networks around the world— including to key U.S.
undergirded by a common theme: adversaries are
allies— a commercial undertaking or a national security
questioning— if not outright rejecting— the post-World
challenge? What is an appropriate U.S. response?
War II liberal international order that the United States and
its allies constructed in the late 1940s. Moreover, the
ï‚· Are infrastructure investments underwritten by China as
contests the NSS is framing appear to have significant
part of its “Belt and Road†Initiative (BRI) about
geopolitical dimensions in addition to its moral ones. This
improving Chinese access to foreign markets, or is it a
is because to U.S. competitors, advancing human dignity
de facto way to establish a global presence that could be
and freedom are means by which the United States retains
utilized for security and defense purposes— or both?
its dominant standing in the world. Both China and Russia
for example, according to Understanding the Current
ï‚· Is Russian production and dissemination of media with
International Order (a 2016 RAND report), "resent key
pro-Moscow narratives to Russian minority groups in
elements of the U.S. conception of postwar order, such as
neighboring countries routine messaging, or is it
promotion of liberal values … viewing them as tools used
designed to destabilize NATO countries?
by the United States to sustain its hegemony.â€
ï‚· Is Russian interference in U.S. and European elections
China appears to be using its wealth to assert security
in 2016, as described by the intelligence community, a
interests in the Pacific, deepen and formalize the region’s
national security threat?
economic integration through efforts such as BRI, and
assert larger influence at international institutions such as
ï‚· Some European and Commonwealth countries that have
the United Nations, the World Bank, and the International
maintained strong economic and political relationship
Monetary Fund. These institutions, however, are rooted in a
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Strategic Competition and Foreign Policy: What is “Political Warfare�
shared sets of values and norms, and it remains uncertain if
Is the United States investing in the right tools and
China’s efforts align with these common values or whether
capabilities to counter political warfare?
China is instead seeking to create a new international
consensus.
Economic Statecraft?
Policymakers generally consider national security and the
Further, U.S. competitors are not just challenging American
requirement for trade and investment relations as
promulgation of values; they are challenging the arguments
interrelated strategic priorities. The United States has
for continued United States leadership of the global system
traditionally used its leadership position to pursue increased
itself. Critics contend that the United States has overly
economic engagement to bring emerging powers into the
militarized its foreign policy; that it has unnecessarily used
rules-based international system. Yet concerns over
force in the pursuit of often-unachievable strategic
growing economic challenges, including the unequal
objectives; and that its economic policies have led to global
distribution of gains from globalization, have led some
financial crises. In Munich in 2007, for example, coming on
countries to embrace populist political views, economic
the heels of the U.S. “surge†in Iraq and shortly before the
nationalism, and to pursue mercantilist policies. As such, a
2008 global financial crisis, Russian President Vladimir
number of countries, including the United Kingdom, Italy
Putin essentially argued that U.S. “unipolar†management
and the United States, appear to be pursuing increasingly
of the global system has been both immoral and
protectionist trade and financial policies as they face a more
incompetent. Subsequent Russian activities in the Ukraine
competitive and multipolar global economy.
have led some to view Putin’s critique with skepticism.
Still, U.S. leadership of the extant world order is being
The Trump Administration has promoted a U.S. foreign
challenged on moral, geopolitical and competency grounds,
policy that seeks to better integrate economic relationships
suggesting to some observers that the U.S. should account
with national security, defense, and foreign policy
for, and better synchronize, these dimensions of statecraft
objectives. In so doing, some experts contend that the
and strategy into the future.
Administration is questioning general consensus about the
relative benefits of the global economic order and the rules-
Political Warfare?
based international system, and in so doing, the appropriate
“Political Warfare†is a term that has recently been
role of the state in international economic policymaking.
reinvigorated by scholars of strategy; it describes the
For example, the Trump Administration has used certain
synchronized use of any aspect of national power short of
trade laws to place increased tariffs on the imports of
overt conventional warfare— such as intelligence assets,
strategic security partners and other trading partners to
alliance building, financial tools, diplomatic relations, to
address perceived threats to national security. At the same
name a few— to achieve state objectives. It was coined in
time, it has opened up new bilateral trade negotiations and
the late 1940s by George F. Kennan, a key architect of U.S.
sought to renegotiate other trade agreements.
strategy during the Cold War, as the United States began to
come to grips with the challenge presented by the Soviet
Diplomatic Tools?
Union (USSR). As he wrote in his 1948 State Department
For FY2018 and FY2019, the Trump Administration has
memorandum Organizing Political Warfare:
requested that the International Affairs budget, which
supports U.S. embassies and diplomatic activities as well as
We have been handicapped…by a popular
foreign assistance, be cut by more than 20% from FY2017
attachment to the concept of a basic difference
funding levels. While some defend proposed cuts to the
between peace and war… and by a reluctance to
State Department’s budget on management and inefficiency
recognize the realities of international relations—
grounds, in the context of political warfare, the reductions
the perpetual rhythm of struggle, in and out of
to the international affairs budget raise two key questions:
war… Political warfare is the logical application of
whether the budgets and associated programs are sufficient
Clausewitz’s doctrine in time of peace. In broadest
to meet today’s challenges, and whether new programming
definition, political warfare is the employment of
and capabilities are needed to meet the emerging strategic
all the means at a nation’s command, short of
challenges.
war, to achieve its national objectives. Such
operations…range from such overt actions as
CRS Products
political alliances, economic measures, and ‘white’
CRS Report R45142, Information Warfare: Issues for Congress,
propaganda to such covert operations as clandestine
by Catherine A. Theohary
support of ‘friendly’ foreign elements, ‘black’
CRS Report R44891, U.S. Role in the World: Background and
psychological warfare and even encouragement of
Issues for Congress, by Ronald O'Rourke and Michael Moodie
underground resistance in hostile states.
Implications for Today?
In the United States, the military dimensions of this
competition garner significant attention and resources. Yet
Kathleen J. McInnis, Specialist in International Security
if political warfare is an adequate lens through which to
Martin A. Weiss, Specialist in International Trade and
view this strategic competition, the nonmilitary aspects of
Finance
the competition might prove equally if not more important.
IF11127
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Strategic Competition and Foreign Policy: What is “Political Warfare�
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