January 23, 2019
Syria Conflict Overview: 2011-2018
2011: Protests Emerge
Figure 1. Syria
In March 2011, the arrest of a group of school children
triggered protests in the southern Syrian province of Dar’a.
Mostly peaceful demonstrations called for political and
economic reform, although violence was reported at times.
As security forces responded with mass arrests and at times
opened fire, protests spread to other provinces. The
opposition movement eventually coalesced into two
umbrella groups—one political, one armed—with the
leadership of both based primarily in exile. Political groups
established the Syrian National Council (SNC), which
remained fractured in the absence of a shared vision for
Syria’s future. Military defectors formed the Free Syrian
Army (FSA), which claimed leadership over the armed
opposition but whose authority was generally unrecognized
by local armed groups, including armed Islamists. Ongoing
violence, primarily but not exclusively on the part of the

Syrian government, prompted President Obama in August
Source: CRS, using ESRI, and U.S. State Department data.
2011 to call for Syrian President Asad to step aside.

Meanwhile, the Al Qaeda (AQ) affiliate in neighboring Iraq
2013: Proxy War, ISIS, Chemical Attacks
(the Islamic State of Iraq, ISI) sent members to Syria under
In March 2013, rebels seized the city of Raqqah, which
the banner of a new group known as the Nusra Front. In
became the first provincial capital to fall out of government
December 2011, the first Nusra Front suicide attacks hit
control. A series of other opposition victories in the area led
government buildings in Damascus.
the government effectively to concede control of Syria’s
2012: Insurgency
rural northeast. These rebel victories prompted increased
involvement by external allies of the Syrian government—
The conflict became increasingly violent, as the
including Lebanese Hezbollah, Iran, and Russia—to bolster
government began to use artillery and fixed wing aircraft
the Asad regime. Meanwhile, the United States, Turkey,
against opposition targets. Extremist attacks became more
and some European and Arab Gulf states increased their
frequent—between November 2011 and December 2012,
support to the Syrian opposition. While nominally united
the Nusra Front claimed responsibility for nearly 600
under the Friends of Syria framework, regional and
attacks in Syria. In February 2012, the United States closed
Western states differed in their goals and strategies, and
its embassy in Damascus, citing security concerns. Local
thus in their support for various factions. Separately, ISI
armed groups began to seize pockets of territory around the
leader Abu Bakr al Baghdadi announced the merger of his
country, primarily in rural areas. A July bombing in central
group and the Nusra Front into the Islamic State of Iraq and
Damascus killed several senior regime officials, including
Al Sham (ISIS/ISIL), a move opposed by Al Qaeda’s
the Minister of Defense. Concerns about potential
central leadership in Afghanistan. The merger triggered
government use of chemical weapons (CW) led President
extensive infighting among Syrian jihadist groups.
Obama in August to declare the use of chemical weapons to
be a “red line” for the United States.
Concerns about Syrian government use of CW grew in
2013. In April, the United Kingdom and France claimed
The international community increased efforts to reach a
that the Syrian government had used chemical weapons on
negotiated solution to the conflict. In June, the United
multiple occasions since December 2012. In August, a sarin
States and Russia signed the Geneva Communiqué, which
gas attack attributed to the Syrian government killed an
called for the establishment of a transitional governing body
estimated 1400 people in the Damascus suburb of Ghouta.
in Syria with full executive powers. The document, which
President Obama requested congressional approval of a
became the basis of future negotiations between the
limited authorization for the use of military force to
government and the opposition, did not clarify the role of
Asad in any future government. Meanwhile, Syria’s
respond. Congress debated, but did not authorize the
request. Russia subsequently negotiated an agreement for
political opposition settled into its present form, known as
the Syrian government to become a party to the Chemical
the National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and
Weapons Convention, dispose of its declared chemical
Opposition Forces—generally shortened to the Syrian
weapons stockpiles (completed in 2016) and destroy
Opposition Coalition (SOC), or Etilaf in Arabic.
production facilities (completed in 2018).
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Syria Conflict Overview: 2011-2018
2014: Operation Inherent Resolve Begins 2017: Counter-IS Operations Advance
In February, Al Qaeda severed ties with ISIS, which went
In January 2017, Russia—backed by Turkey and Iran—
on to seize vast stretches of territory in central and northeast
initiated a series of peace talks in the Kazakh capital of
Syria and northern Iraq. In June, ISIS declared a caliphate
Astana between Syrian government and opposition forces.
with its capital at Raqqah. The group changed its name to
The talks became known as the Astana process, and were
the Islamic State (IS), and thousands of additional foreign
seen by some as an effort to circumvent the U.S.-backed
fighters traveled to Syria and Iraq to join its ranks. In
Geneva process. The Astana process established three
August, the United States began air strikes in Iraq to stop
opposition-held areas as “de-escalation” zones in an effort
the IS territorial advance there, and to reduce the threat to
to reduce violence. Separately, the United States, Russia,
U.S. personnel in Iraq. In September, the United States
and Jordan established a southwest ceasefire area in Dar’a.
expanded air strikes to Syria at Iraq’s request, to prevent the
In April, a suspected nerve agent attack by government
Islamic State from using Syria as a base for operations in
forces on the rebel-held town of Khan Sheikhoun in Idlib
Iraq. A subsequent air campaign to lift the IS siege on the
province killed an estimated 80-100 people. The United
Syrian Kurdish town of Kobane brought the United States
States struck Al Shayrat airfield in Homs province, from
into partnership with the Kurdish People’s Protection Units
which U.S. intelligence sources had concluded the attack
(YPG). In September, Congress authorized a train and
was launched. In a series of incidents in May and June, U.S.
equip program for select Syrian forces. The program was
forces also carried out defensive strikes against Syrian
designed to build new local force units capable of fighting
government and allied forces deemed to be threatening U.S.
the Islamic State, protecting opposition-held areas, and
forces and local partners in Syria. In June, SDF forces
“promoting the conditions for a negotiated settlement to end
began operations to retake the IS capital at Raqqah, and
the conflict in Syria.” In October, the Defense Department
SDF forces recaptured the city in October. In December,
established Combined Joint Task Force-Operation Inherent
U.S. military officials announced that roughly 2,000 U.S.
Resolve (CJTF-OIR) to formalize military operations
personnel were operating in Syria, and that 98 percent of
against IS forces in Iraq and Syria.
territory formerly held by IS forces had been liberated.
2015: Syria Train & Equip Begins
2018: Syrian Government Recovers
In 2015, the Syrian government faced additional territorial
External actors escalated military operations in Syria.
losses. Opposition forces captured the provincial capital of
Tensions flared between Iran and Israel, as the latter
Idlib in northwestern Syria and surrounding areas with the
increasingly targeted Iranian facilities and personnel inside
support of Al Qaeda-linked fighters. IS fighters seized
Syria. Turkey launched a military operation inside Syria
territory in Homs province, and Kurdish fighters expanded
targeting Kurdish forces and causing a manpower drain
their control along the Turkish border. In May, the United
from counter-IS operations in eastern Syria. The United
States began training recruits for the Syria Train and Equip
States struggled to reduce tensions in the city of Manbij, as
Program. In mid-2015, Russia began a military buildup in
Turkey threatened to expand its military campaign unless
Syria, and started air strikes in September—targeting
Kurdish forces withdrew east of the Euphrates River.
opposition groups in addition to IS fighters. In October, the
By early 2018, the U.S. intelligence community assessed
first U.S. Special Operations Forces deployed to Syria to
that the Syria conflict had “decisively shifted in the Syrian
support local partner forces. Challenges in implementation
regime’s favor.” By mid-2018, the Syrian government had
led the Obama Administration to modify the Syria Train
recaptured most areas designated as de-escalation zones in
and Equip program to focus on equipping existing units
2017 through a combination of military force and coercive
commanded by vetted leaders. Kurdish YPG forces aligned
surrender agreements. By late 2018, only parts of the Idlib
with a small number of non-Kurdish groups to form an
de-escalation area remained outside government control,
umbrella group known as the Syrian Democratic Forces
held by a constellation of opposition and AQ-linked groups.
(SDF), which began to receive U.S. support.
2016: Ceasefires Fail; Battle for Aleppo
In 2018, State Department officials described U.S. Syria
policy as seeking (1) the enduring defeat of the Islamic
The United States attempted to work with Russia to reduce
State; (2) a political settlement to the Syrian civil war per
the violence in Syria, which both the Syrian government
U.N. Security Council Resolution 2254; and (3) the
and opposition described as a prerequisite to their continued
withdrawal of Iranian-commanded forces from Syria.
participation in U.N.-led peace talks. The two countries
Officials stated that the United States planned to remain in
twice attempted to use their leverage with the Syrian
Syria to stabilize areas liberated from IS control, and to
opposition and government, respectively, to implement a
train local partners to hold these areas so that IS forces
cessation of hostilities. Both initiatives were unsuccessful.
could not re-emerge. In December, President Trump stated
In contrast, the counter-IS campaign successfully severed
that the Islamic State had been defeated in Syria, and that
much of the group’s access to the Turkish border—a key
U.S. troops would be withdrawing “now.” Subsequent
supply and foreign fighter transit route. However, Turkey
statements by senior Administration officials suggested that
strongly opposed the participation of YPG fighters in the
the withdrawal could take several months, and was
campaign, and launched an operation inside Syria aimed at
conditional on reaching an agreement with Turkey that
neutralizing IS forces and preventing Kurdish YPG forces
guaranteed the protection of U.S.-backed Kurdish forces in
from consolidating control along the Syria-Turkey border.
Syria. The year ended amid uncertainty regarding the
Meanwhile, regime and opposition forces battled for control
withdrawal and its impact on U.S. programs in Syria.
of Aleppo—Syria’s largest city. In December, regime-
backed forces took full control of Aleppo, in a battle the
Carla E. Humud, Analyst in Middle Eastern Affairs
U.N. described as involving war crimes on all sides.
IF11080
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Syria Conflict Overview: 2011-2018


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