Updated January 17, 2019
Sudan
When unified (1956-2011), Sudan was Africa’s largest
Figure 1. Sudan Key Facts
country by area, and the site of its longest-running civil
war. In 2011, after decades of fighting broadly described as
a conflict between the predominately Muslim “Arab” north
and “African” south, Sudan split in two. The split did not
resolve other conflicts, in Darfur, Southern Kordofan, and
Blue Nile. Overlapping struggles between security forces
and armed groups, nomadic and farming communities, and
among ethnic groups have caused extensive displacement
and suffering. Across Sudan, economic pressures, social
tensions, and dissent present challenges for the Islamist
government of President Omar al Bashir, who came to
power in a 1989 coup. Nationwide anti-government protests
in early 2019 suggest growing pressure for regime change.

Source: Fact information from CIA World Factbook and IMF, 2018.
South Sudan’s secession was a major financial blow to
Sudan, which lost 75% of its oil production, two-thirds of
The north-south wars took a heavy toll on both sides. In
export earnings, and over half its fiscal revenues. A large
2005, the government and the SPLM signed the
security sector budget, mismanagement, and corruption all
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), which enshrined
the south’s right to
compound Sudan’s economic troubles, which spur periodic
self-determination after a six-year
“interim period,” during which the SPLM and the ruling
protests and domestic criticism of the government. The

International Monetary Fund assesses that U.S. economic
National Congress Party (NCP) formed a unity government.
sanctions, imposed in 1997, also undermined economic
Southern Sudanese voted overwhelmingly in January 2011
stability and growth. Major U.S. enforcement actions for
to secede and achieved independence in July of that year.
sanctions violations in 2014-2015 significantly reduced
The CPA failed to resolve several contentious issues, and
Sudan’s access to U.S. dollars and further impeded its
talks have continued on border disputes and related security
access to international financial markets and institutions.
issues, debts, and once-shared resources, such as oil. The
Sudan has long sought relief from U.S. sanctions, and the
proximity of Sudanese rebel activity to the border
outgoing Obama Administration announced a move to ease
complicated its demilitarization after separation, as did the
them in January 2017, after determining that Sudan had
unresolved status of contested areas, notably Abyei, which
taken positive steps over a six-month period in five key
was granted special semi-autonomous status in the CPA.
areas: enhancing counterterrorism cooperation; addressing
An official referendum for Abyei residents on whether to
the threat of a regional armed group, the Lord’s Resistance
retain their special status in Sudan or join South Sudan was
Army (LRA); ceasing negative interference in South Sudan;
slated for 2011 but has been indefinitely delayed. The
ceasing hostilities in conflict zones; and improving
deployment of the U.N. Interim Force for Abyei (UNISFA)
humanitarian access. President Trump permanently revoked
defused a violent stand-off in 2011, but local tensions
the economic sanctions in October 2017. Some U.S.
persist and still have the potential to spur a larger conflict.
restrictions remain, including on debt relief and based on a
Relations between Sudan and South Sudan improved in
state sponsor of terrorism designation—the latter is now the
2018. A long-delayed joint border monitoring mission is
focus of “Phase II” of a bilateral engagement framework.
now semi-operational, though there has been little progress
Background
on border demarcation. Sudan surprised many by mediating
a new peace deal between warring parties in South Sudan
Despite Sudan’s diversity, northern-led regimes espousing
mid-year. If the deal holds it would allow a resumption of
Islamist ideals have dominated government since
oil production in fields shut by South Sudan’s civil war,
independence, often pressing distant provinces to conform
generating needed revenue for both Khartoum and Juba.
to the center, Khartoum, rather than accommodating local
customs and institutions. Instead of forging a national
Ongoing Conflicts
identity, these policies exacerbated Sudan’s racial, cultural,
The CPA did not resolve Sudan’s longstanding center-
and religious differences. Attempts to Arabize and Islamize
periphery tensions. Khartoum has responded to the political
the countryside were resisted by southerners and other
demands of restive regions more often with force than with
marginalized groups and sparked insurgencies in the south.
substantive reform and has financed local militias to help
Groups in other regions rose up periodically, citing local
counter insurgencies. The militias have been linked to
grievances. Some in the central states of Southern Kordofan
indiscriminate and disproportionate attacks on civilians.
and Blue Nile joined the southern rebellion, the Sudan
Sudan has conducted aerial attacks in Darfur in violation of
People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A).
U.N. Security Council resolution 1591 (2005).
https://crsreports.congress.gov

---

Sudan
Darfur. More than a decade after the George W. Bush
The Humanitarian Situation
Administration declared genocide in Darfur in 2004,
Over seven million Sudanese were in need of humanitarian
violence still plagues the region. Fighting reportedly
aid in 2018. Almost 1.8 million Darfuris remain displaced
displaced as many as 265,000 Darfuris in the first half of
internally, and Chad hosts over 330,000 Darfuri refugees.
2016, primarily in the Jebel Marra area, a long-time rebel
As many as 780,000 people may be displaced in Blue Nile,
stronghold. After a major offensive, the government
Southern Kordofan, and Abyei. South Sudan and Ethiopia
declared Darfur free of rebellion in April 2016, and on June
host over 300,000 refugees from the Two Areas. Sudan
30, 2016 it declared a unilateral ceasefire in Darfur and in
hosts over 900,000 refugees, most from South Sudan.
Blue Nile and Southern Kordofan. U.N. monitors suggest
the military conducted aerial bombardments in Jebel Marra
Foreign Relations
into late 2016, however. Sporadic skirmishes, insecurity,
Sudan has taken conspicuous steps since 2014 to repair
and government restrictions continue to limit access by aid
relations with key Arab Gulf countries, which are important
workers and peacekeepers to some areas.
sources of investment. Those ties had cooled amid concern
Direct clashes between the military and the Darfur rebels
over Sudan’s ties to Iran and its perceived support for the
quieted after the 2016 offensive, but there has been little
Muslim Brotherhood. Sudan has deployed as many as
progress in the peace process. U.N. monitors report that
14,000 troops, reportedly including child soldiers, to
significant clashes between government forces and one
support the Saudi-led coalition in Yemen, in return for Gulf
rebel faction resumed in 2018; other rebels have withdrawn
aid. Sudan’s relations with European countries also have
to Libya to regroup. Intercommunal clashes in Darfur
improved in recent years, in part based on cooperation to
continue, as do attacks by armed groups on civilians,
counter migrant flows through Sudan.
peacekeepers, and aid workers. In this context, there has
U.S. Policy and Foreign Assistance
been debate within the U.N. Security Council over pressure
from Khartoum to end the African Union-U.N. Hybrid
U.S. relations with Sudan, turbulent for over two decades,
Operation in Darfur (UNAMID). The Council agreed in
have improved since 2016. After a nine-month review of
Sudan’s compliance with the Obama Administration’s
2017 to reconfigure the mission and in 2018 authorized a
“five
significant troop reduction (to just over 4,000 troops by
-track engagement strategy,” the Trump
mid-2019), with UNAMID’s possible exit in June 2020.
Administration announced its decision in October 2017 to
make permanent the temporary sanctions relief provided by
The ICC. In 2005, the U.N. Security Council granted the
President Obama. President Trump has indicated support
International Criminal Court (ICC) jurisdiction over serious
for continued efforts to improve bilateral relations, but has
crimes committed in Darfur. Over a decade later, the ICC
stressed that further normalization of ties will require
has yet to commence a trial, and five arrest warrants remain
additional progress by Sudan, including with respect for
outstanding, including two for the arrest of President Bashir
human rights and religious freedom, as well as compliance
on charges of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and
with U.N. Security Council resolutions on North Korea.
genocide. The ICC Prosecutor has repeatedly expressed
frustration with Security Council inaction on the arrest
U.S. sanctions on Sudan, some of which remain in place,
warrants. Sudan remains uncooperative with the Court.
have been imposed through both Executive Orders and
congressionally enacted legal restrictions. They are based
Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile. The conflict in these
on Sudan’s debt arrears, support for international terrorism,
states, often referred to as “the Two Areas,” is driven by
and pervasive human rights violations. The State
unresolved grievances that date back to the north-south war,
Department continues to rank Sudan poorly on human
when some local groups joined the SPLM rebellion. The
trafficking and has designated it as a Country of Particular
CPA provided for a process in which the two states might
Concern under the International Religious Freedom Act.
achieve greater autonomy within Sudan, but it stalled and
Sudanese law permits the death penalty for apostasy and
the conflict reignited in 2011. South Sudan’s ruling party
adultery and prison sentences or flogging for blasphemy.
denies supporting the rebels, known as the SPLM-North
(SPLM-N), despite their historic relationship. The SPLM-N
Sudan has been designated as a State Sponsor of Terrorism
(now split into two factions) and the major Darfur rebel
since 1993. Nonetheless, successive administrations have
groups have a loose alliance, the Sudan Revolutionary
described Sudan as a “cooperative” counterterrorism
Front (SRF). Khartoum has restricted aid agencies’ access
partner and have praised its cooperation regarding the
to rebel-held areas since the onset of the conflict.
Islamic State in particular. The Trump Administration has
indicated that it would consider lifting Sudan’s designation
Political Challenges
if more progress is made on counterterrorism cooperation,
The government faces mounting domestic pressure as 2019
human rights and other key issues. The government’s
begins: protests that began over the price of bread have
response to recent protests may affect that decision.
spread across the country, with demonstrators demanding
Development aid for Sudan has been extremely limited
an end to the regime. Elections are scheduled for 2020, and
since South Sudan’s separation. The State Department
the NCP’s plan to remove term limits from the constitution
requested $2.4 million for FY2019 in nonemergency aid, to
to allow Bashir to run again now appears likely to spark
support civil society and conflict mitigation. U.S.
further unrest. Several prominent opposition leaders who
humanitarian aid totaled over $327 million in FY2018.
had joined a “National Consensus Government” (formed in
2017) have quit. The major opposition parties boycotted the
Lauren Ploch Blanchard,
last elections, in 2015, when Bashir won 94% of the vote.
IF10182
https://crsreports.congress.gov

---

Sudan


Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan shared staff to
congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and under the direction of Congress.
Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public understanding of information that has
been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the
United States Government, are not subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be
reproduced and distributed in its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include
copyrighted images or material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you
wish to copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

https://crsreports.congress.gov | IF10182 · VERSION 12 · UPDATED

---