Updated December 28, 2018
South Sudan
Peace has been elusive in South Sudan, which became the
Figure 1. South Sudan Key Facts
world’s newest country in 2011. Nearly 400,000 people are
estimated to have died as a result of a civil war that began
in 2013. The war has displaced over four million people,
including 2.5 million refugees who have fled to neighboring
countries. It is the largest refugee crisis in Africa.
Background and Context
South Sudan’s independence from Sudan, supported by the
United States, came after a vote for secession in 2011,
following almost 40 years of rebellion against the Sudanese
government. That war, which displaced over four million
people and led to as many as two million deaths, inhibited

the development of basic infrastructure, human capital, and
Source: CRS map. Facts from CIA and IMF reference databases.
formal civilian institutions in the south. Humanitarian needs
The Return to War
persisted after independence, despite abundant natural
The political dispute that triggered the crisis in 2013 was
resources, including oil fields that once generated 75% of
Sudan’s
not based on ethnic identity, but it overlapped with existing
oil production. Corruption and malfeasance slowed
ethnic and political grievances, spurring targeted ethnic
post-war recovery and development. With secession, South
killings and clashes in the capital, Juba, and then beyond.
Sudan gained its sovereignty, but by many accounts its
At the outbreak of the conflict, President Salva Kiir accused
population lacked a common identity—despite a shared
Machar of attempting a coup. Hundreds died in attacks
history of trauma and marginalization—and its leaders,
reportedly targeting Machar’s Nuer ethnic group in Juba.
former rebels, had little experience in governing.
Revenge attacks against Kiir’s group, the Dinka, followed.
South Sudan’s current conflict reflects tensions among its
Machar and several senior Nuer military commanders
leaders and ethnic groups that date back to Sudan’s civil
subsequently declared a rebellion. The ensuing war pitted
war. While that war was described broadly as a north-south
government forces and militia loyal to Kiir against those
struggle, it also featured infighting among southern rebel
aligned with Machar, spurring a mass humanitarian crisis.
commanders in the 1990s that nearly derailed the southern
The Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD;
bid for self-determination. Leaders in the insurgency, the
Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/
an East African regional body) sought to mediate a peace

deal, but the parties repeatedly violated their commitments
SPLA), competed for power and mobilized supporters
to cease hostilities. In August 2015, under threat of a
along ethnic lines. All sides committed atrocities. The
proposed arms embargo and other sanctions, they finally
government in Khartoum fueled SPLM divisions by
signed a peace agreement. Kiir did so with reservations,
financing breakaway factions. The factions reconciled in
calling the deal an attack on South Sudan’s sovereignty.
the early 2000s, before Khartoum and the SPLM signed the
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005.
The parties delayed implementation of the deal until April
After the CPA, the SPLM became the south’s ruling party.
2016, when they formed a new Transitional Government of
National Unity (TGNU), six months behind schedule.
Ethnic tensions and interpersonal rivalries grew under the
Machar returned to Juba to become First Vice President and
strain of new governing responsibilities, amid severe
a new cabinet was appointed. Sporadic clashes continued,
human, institutional, and infrastructure capacity constraints.
though, and violence spread to areas that had previously
The country was awash in small arms, and local ethnic
been comparatively stable. The deal collapsed in July 2016,
violence was increasingly politicized. Maneuvering ahead
when a series of incidents between the parties’ forces in
of planned 2015 elections added to these dynamics. Work
Juba sparked days of intense fighting. Machar and others in
on a new constitution stalled, and a political struggle among
the opposition fled the country, pursued by Kiir’s forces to
senior officials unfolded. A July 2013 cabinet reshuffle, in
the border of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Machar
which President Kiir dismissed his vice president, Riek
was subsequently airlifted to Sudan for medical treatment,
Machar, and other key officials, formalized a major fissure
and later traveled to South Africa, where by some accounts
in the ruling party. Tensions rose as Machar and others
he was placed under de-facto house arrest.
publicly accused Kiir of becoming increasingly dictatorial.
The war resumed. Both sides claimed commitment to the
Those tensions erupted in December 2013. What began as a
2015 deal, while accusing each other of abrogating it. Kiir
conflict among the presidential guard ultimately split the
sought to maintain the appearance of a unity government,
military, largely along ethnic lines. Ethnic militia mobilized
replacing Machar with Machar’s ally-turned-rival, Taban
behind their respective political leaders, and the country
Deng, and dismissing opposition cabinet ministers and
slipped into war. Uganda provided initial military support
legislators loyal to Machar. Machar continued to lead the
to the government and has facilitated arms imports.
main armed opposition faction from exile. The insurgency
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South Sudan
against Kiir’s government spread and fractured, with new
U.N. sanctions monitors report that the war has caused a
groups emerging and defections from both sides. The war
“systemic breakdown of South Sudanese society,” and that
moved into the southern Equatoria region, spurring a
“exclusion of competing tribal groups from political power
refugee surge into Uganda and affecting vital trade routes.
has become a principal aim of many protagonists.” While
Another Peace Deal
political reconciliation is possible, rebuilding trust among
communities affected by ethnic violence will be a longer-
The international community has deferred to IGAD on
term challenge. Grievances over abuses have fueled the
peace negotiations. The regional body has maintained a
commitment to “revitalizing”
conflict, and the public reportedly has little confidence in
the 2015 peace deal, and in
the justice system. An African Union Commission of
late 2017 began efforts to bring the warring parties together
Inquiry has emphasized the need for accountability for
again for talks. To the surprise of many, Sudan took on the
atrocities, a task for a proposed hybrid court per the 2015
role of lead mediator in mid-2018, with its former rival,
peace deal. The government has delayed its establishment.
Uganda, in a supporting role. In September, Kiir, Machar,
and several other opposition leaders signed a new deal,
International Responses to the Crisis
reportedly under significant pressure from Sudan, which
The international community has mobilized humanitarian,
had struck its own deal with Juba over oil revenues. Other
peacekeeping, and diplomatic resources to respond to
opposition leaders refused to sign, contending that the
needs, protect civilians, and seek an end to the conflict. The
agreement failed to address the root causes of the war.
United States is by far the largest donor, providing $3.76
Experts debate whether the new deal is a viable framework
billion in humanitarian aid since the war began. The U.N.
for sustainable peace, and some question whether regional
Security Council authorized the expansion of UNMISS
actors are willing to apply sufficient leverage on the
when the war began, modifying its mandate to focus on
government to ensure its full implementation, already
four key tasks: protecting civilians, monitoring and
behind schedule. Outstanding questions around the accord’s
investigating human rights abuses, facilitating aid delivery,
security arrangements are of particular concern. The
and supporting a cessation of hostilities. The Council again
increased UNMISS’s
International Crisis Group describes the new arrangement
troop ceiling after the war resumed in
as “peace on paper,” rather than a real political settlement.
2016, and authorized a new regional protection force within
Impact of the Conflict
the mission to improve security in Juba. The government
objected, citing sovereignty concerns, and slowed the
The humanitarian situation remains dire. Insecurity has
force’s deployment. In late 2018, UNMISS had just over
disrupted farming cycles, grazing patterns, and trade routes;
14,000 troops, well below its authorized size of 17,000.
local markets have collapsed. Inflation has made basic
IGAD has controversially proposed filling the gap with
goods unaffordable to many, even in urban areas. Relief
troops from Sudan and Uganda, as well as Somalia.
supplies have been repeatedly looted. Seasonal rains,
The Security Council established a framework for targeted
violence, and government restrictions hinder aid efforts. In
sanctions in early 2015 and has designated eight
early 2017, U.N. agencies declared 100,000 people to be in
commanders, including the current and former army chiefs.
famine. A humanitarian surge alleviated the severity of the
It authorized an arms embargo in July 2018.
crisis, but experts warn famine could return should
continued violence constrain humanitarian access. Of the
U.S. Policy and Foreign Assistance
estimated 10 million who remain in the country, more than
The United States, which played a key role in facilitating
7 million need aid; over 6 million are acutely food insecure.
the CPA and South Sudan’s independence, is the country’s
U.N. officials assert that targeted attacks against civilians,
largest bilateral aid donor and plays a lead role in U.N.
humanitarians, and U.N. personnel in South Sudan may
Security Council deliberations. Congressional engagement
constitute war crimes or crimes against humanity. The U.N.
has historically been driven by humanitarian and human
Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) reports that, from the
rights concerns. The current conflict and prior allegations
outset of the conflict, “Civilians were not only caught up in
of corruption and human rights abuses have strained the
the violence, they were directly targeted, often along ethnic
bilateral relationship. The Trump Administration has
lines.” The U.N. Commission on Human Rights in South
expressed concern with the humanitarian crisis; outgoing
Sudan suggests that ethnic cleansing has occurred. Forces
U.S. Permanent Representative to the U.N. Nikki Haley has
on both sides have reportedly committed widespread sexual
been a vocal critic of the Kiir regime, as has National
violence. A July 2016 attack on a residence for aid workers
Security Advisor John Bolton. Trump has not filled the
in Juba, during which Americans were assaulted and a local
special envoy post, vacant since late 2016. Twelve people
journalist killed, highlighted the dangers facing aid workers
have been designated for sanctions under Executive Order
and other expatriates. Per U.N. reports, over 100 aid
13664, issued by President Obama in 2014. The Trump
workers (most local) have been killed. UNICEF estimates
Administration has also sanctioned one of Kiir’s business
that as many as 19,000 child soldiers have been recruited.
associates for corruption on authority granted under the
Global Magnitsky Human Rights Accountability Act.
Almost 200,000 people continue to seek refuge at UNMISS
bases, including over 32,000 in Juba alone. Many
U.S. bilateral aid to South Sudan totaled over $130 million
reportedly fear that they may be targeted based on political
in FY2017, in addition to almost $750 million in emergency
or ethnic affiliation if they leave. A 2016 U.N. survey found
humanitarian aid. The State Department has requested $86
that 70% of the women in the camp in Juba had been raped
million to support health and education programs, mitigate
since the war began. The U.N. High Commissioner for
conflict, foster peace, and promote reforms in FY2019.
Human Rights has described government efforts to hold
Lauren Ploch Blanchard,
perpetrators of abuses accountable as “few and inadequate.”
IF10218
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South Sudan


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