June 14, 2017
U.S. Military Presence on Okinawa and Realignment to Guam
Introduction
turn affects broader U.S. efforts to realign its military forces
As the U.S. and Japanese governments in recent years have
in the region, particularly the plans to transfer some
steadily strengthened key elements of the U.S.-Japan
Marines to Guam. The Guam project faces its own
alliance, they continue to struggle with how to manage the
difficulty in readying the necessary facilities to host new
large-scale presence of U.S. troops in the southernmost
U.S. troops.
Japanese prefecture of Okinawa. With the legacy of the
U.S. occupation of Japan following World War II and
Futenma Base Relocation Agreement
Okinawa’s key strategic location, Okinawa hosts a large
In 1996, the bilateral Security Consultative Committee
share of the more than 50,000 U.S. military personnel
(composed of the U.S. Secretaries of State and Defense and
stationed in Japan. About 25% of all facilities used by U.S.
their Japanese counterparts, also known as the “2+2”)
Forces Japan (USFJ) and over half of USFJ military
established the Special Action Committee on Okinawa
personnel are located in the prefecture, which comprises
(SACO) to alleviate the burdens of the base-hosting
less than 1% of Japan’s total land area. At the same time,
communities. The agreement mandated the release to
the bases provide a crucial component of the U.S. military’s
Okinawa of thousands of acres of land that had been used
forward operating presence in the Asia-Pacific and are seen
by the U.S. military since World War II, including MCAS
by many as a bulwark against China’s expanding presence
Futenma, which was to be relocated to the existing Camp
in the region. The attitudes of many native Okinawans
Schwab in the sparsely populated Henoko area of Nago
toward U.S. military bases are largely negative, reflecting
City. The encroachment of residential areas around the
in part a tumultuous history and complex relationships with
Futenma base over decades made the noise of the facility an
“mainland” Japan and with the United States. The United
irritant to the local community and elevated the risk of a
States administered Okinawa from 1945 until 1972.
fatal aircraft accident. In crafting the deal, alliance officials
intended to make the U.S. military presence on Okinawa
more politically sustainable.
Efforts to implement the Okinawa agreement quickly
stalled due to local opposition to the 1996 plan. In a series
of bilateral negotiations that culminated in 2006, the U.S.
agreed to remove roughly 9,000 Marines from Okinawa to
Guam by 2014. Congressional concerns over the scope and
cost of the Guam realignment, as well as concerns about
Guam’s preparedness, led to later revisions in the plan.
Marine Corps Realignment to Guam
Guam is a 210-square-mile tropical island, roughly 12 miles
at its widest point, lying 1,230 nautical miles southeast of
Okinawa; it has long hosted a significant American military
presence. Once claimed as a U.S. territorial possession,
Guam is currently classified as an “unincorporated
territory” whose people maintain U.S. citizenship status and
limited rights to self-government. The Department of
Defense controls 30% of all acreage on the island. Roughly
10,000 military personnel reside on Guam, primarily
stationed at Anderson Air Force Base at the northern end,
and Naval Station Guam on the western coast. Situated

between Hawaii and the Philippines, Guam represents an
At the heart of the issue is a prominent controversy over the
important strategic hub for U.S. air and maritime assets in
relocation of the Marine Corps Air Station (MCAS) in
the Western Pacific.
Futenma, known as the Futenma Replacement Facility (or
FRF). Despite over two decades of both bilateral and
The current “distributed laydown” strategy would relocate
domestic Japanese efforts, transferring the airbase to a less
4,100 Marines from Okinawa to Guam; 2,500 to Australia
congested area of Okinawa remains a divisive issue
on a rotational basis; 2,700 to Hawaii; and 800 to the
between the central government in Tokyo and Okinawan
continental United States. In a move intended to overcome
leaders. Ongoing protests against the relocated base and the
delays, the United States and Japan announced in February
opposition of the current Okinawan governor present steep
2012 that the relocation would no longer be contingent on
challenges to implementing the planned relocation. This in
the completion of the FRF. Consequently, the realignment
www.crs.gov | 7-5700

---

U.S. Military Presence on Okinawa and Realignment to Guam
of Marines from Okinawa to Guam and elsewhere is
as soon as possible, and the most plausible means of
proceeding on its own timeline, separate from the issue of
achieving that goal under the existing agreement would be
the FRF. The Department of Defense has assessed the total
to accelerate construction of the FRF. In 2014, the
cost of the Guam relocation at $8.7 billion, with $3.1
commander of Marine Forces Japan reiterated the U.S.
provided in contributions by Japan.
position that the Marine Corps would not cease operations
at Futenma until a replacement facility on Okinawa is
Political and Legal Resistance to Base Relocation
completed. A U.S. military official testified to Congress in
Elected in 2014 on an anti-base platform, Okinawa
2016 that the expected completion of the new air station
Governor Takeshi Onaga has used a variety of tactics to
had been delayed from 2022 to 2025.
prevent or delay the construction of the FRF at the Henoko
site. After Onaga’s initial attempt to negotiate a new base
Construction of the new base could also be a law
relocation plan with the central government met firm
enforcement challenge for Japan. The ability and will of the
resistance in Tokyo, in March 2015 he demanded that the
Okinawan Prefectural Police to thwart determined anti-base
Ministry of Defense stop work on the offshore landfill
protesters and enable smooth construction could be tested.
needed to build the runways at Camp Schwab. Onaga then
The Japanese Coast Guard has been called into service to
appointed an expert commission that determined that the
prevent sea-going protestors in kayaks from interfering with
prior governor’s approval of the landfill had been illegal,
the land reclamation operation. The mayor of the local
and Onaga used the commission’s findings as the basis to
municipality has declared that he will not cooperate
revoke the permit in October 2015.
whatsoever in construction of the FRF, which could bring
additional inconveniences and logistical delays.
After a cabinet minister rejected Onaga’s maneuver, the
governor applied for screening by a third-party council that
2017 Developments
manages disputes between the central governments and
In 2017, a variety of statements demonstrated both
local governments. Tokyo and Naha (the capital city of
continuity and potential changes to the existing plan. In
Okinawa Prefecture) agreed in March 2016 to a court-
February, Defense Secretary Jim Mattis and Prime Minister
recommended mediation process, suspending construction
Abe reaffirmed their commitment to building the FRF.
of the FRF while the two sides resumed ultimately fruitless
However, U.S. Marine Corps Commandant General Robert
negotiations. A December 2016 Japanese Supreme Court
Neller testified to Congress in May that the realignment
decision ruled that Governor Onaga could not revoke the
plan could be reviewed due to the changing security
landfill permit. Governor Onaga has vowed to take further
situation. In April, Commander of the U.S. Pacific
steps to prevent the construction.
Command Admiral Harry Harris testified to Congress that
the United States planned to transfer 4,000 of the 19,000
On the political front, Onaga has sought to bring wider
Marines stationed on Okinawa to Guam between 2024 and
attention—from mainland Japan and around the world—to
2028, and that the U.S. military ultimately hoped to reduce
the issue of the U.S. military presence on Okinawa and to
the number of Marines on Okinawa to about 10,000. In
garner support for his positions. Onaga traveled to the
April, Guam’s Governor Eddie Calvo announced that, due
United States in 2015 and again in 2017 to meet with U.S.
to prolonged shortfalls in the construction workforce caused
officials and Members of Congress in an attempt to
by H-2B visa restrictions, he would no longer support the
convince U.S. leaders that the current Futenma relocation
realignment of U.S. forces.
plan is unwise. In August 2015, more than 100 Japan
scholars and peace activists signed a petition urging Onaga
On Okinawa, the Japanese government has begun
to revoke the landfill permit for the FRF. Some anti-base
construction work at Camp Schwab in Henoko. Major
groups in Okinawa have pledged to take extreme measures
landfill work is reportedly expected to start in 2018, barring
to prevent construction. Progressive political groups in
further delays. Officials are hopeful that land returns from
mainland Japan have also held rallies to demonstrate
vacated U.S. bases will spur economic development on
opposition to the FRF.
Okinawa and ease opposition to the U.S. base plans. In
December 2016, the United States returned nearly 10,000
Outlook for Construction of Offshore Runways at
acres of land in the northern part of the island to Japan, the
the Henoko Site
largest transfer of land since the reversion of Okinawa to
Construction of the new facility will involve challenges for
Japan in 1972. For more information and analysis, see CRS
both law enforcement officials and engineers working on
Report R42645, The U.S. Military Presence in Okinawa
the project. According to a bilateral experts study group
and the Futenma Base Controversy.
report in 2010, the offshore runways will require 21 million
cubic meters of soil to create 395 acres of reclaimed land.
Emma Chanlett-Avery, echanlettavery@crs.loc.gov, 7-
The bulk of this soil will be delivered by ship from other
7748
areas of Japan. (The Okinawa prefectural legislature passed
Christopher T. Mann, cmann@crs.loc.gov, 7-0451
an ordinance that requires imported soil to undergo special
screening and allows the governor to cancel the import of
IF10672
soil.) A slightly larger offshore runway project at the
Iwakuni base in Japan took 13 years to complete.
Abe Administration officials have repeatedly declared their
intent to return the land of MCAS Futenma to local control
www.crs.gov | 7-5700

---