Bitcoin: Questions, Answers, and Analysis of
Legal Issues
Edward V. Murphy
Specialist in Financial Economics
M. Maureen Murphy
Legislative Attorney
Michael V. Seitzinger
Legislative Attorney
October 13, 2015
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R43339
Bitcoin: Questions, Answers, and Analysis of Legal Issues
Summary
Bitcoin first appeared in January 2009, the creation of a computer programmer using the
pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto. His invention is an open-source (its controlling computer code is
open to public view), peer-to-peer (transactions do not require a third-party intermediary such as
PayPal or Visa) digital currency (being electronic with no physical manifestation). The Bitcoin
system is private, with no traditional financial institutions involved in transactions. Unlike earlier
digital currencies that had some central controlling person or entity, the Bitcoin network is
completely decentralized, with all parts of transactions performed by the users of the system.
With a Bitcoin transaction there is no third-party intermediary. The buyer and seller interact
directly (peer to peer), but their identities are encrypted and no personal information is transferred
from one to the other. However, unlike a fully anonymous transaction, there is a transaction
record. A full transaction record of every Bitcoin and every Bitcoin user’s encrypted identity is
maintained on the public ledger. For this reason, Bitcoin transactions are thought to be
pseudonymous, not anonymous. Although the scale of Bitcoin use has increased substantially, it
still remains small in comparison to traditional electronic payments systems, such as credit cards,
and the use of dollars as a circulating currency.
Congress is interested in Bitcoin because of concerns about its use in illegal money transfers,
concerns about its effect on the ability of the Federal Reserve to meet its objectives (of stable
prices, maximum employment, and financial stability), and concerns about the protection of
consumers and investors who might use Bitcoin.
Bitcoin offers users the advantages of lower transaction costs, increased privacy, and long-term
protection of loss of purchasing power from inflation. However, it also has a number of
disadvantages that could hinder wider use. These include sizable volatility of the price of
Bitcoins, uncertain security from theft and fraud, and a long-term deflationary bias that
encourages the hoarding of Bitcoins.
In addition, Bitcoin raises a number of legal and regulatory concerns, including its potential for
facilitating money laundering, its treatment under federal securities law, and its status in the
regulation of foreign exchange trading.
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Bitcoin: Questions, Answers, and Analysis of Legal Issues
Contents
Some Basic Questions ..................................................................................................................... 1
What Is Bitcoin? ........................................................................................................................ 1
How Does the Bitcoin System Work? ....................................................................................... 1
How Are Bitcoins Obtained? .................................................................................................... 2
Are Bitcoin Transactions Anonymous? ..................................................................................... 3
What Is the Scale of Bitcoin Use? ............................................................................................. 3
Would Bitcoins Affect the Fed’s Conduct of Monetary Policy? ............................................... 4
Arguments For and Against Wider Use of Bitcoin .......................................................................... 5
Why Would One Want to Use Bitcoins? ................................................................................... 5
Lower Transaction Costs for Electronic Economic Exchanges .......................................... 5
Increased Privacy ................................................................................................................ 6
No Erosion of Purchasing Power by Inflation .................................................................... 6
What Factors Might Deter Widespread Bitcoin Use? ............................................................... 7
Not Legal Tender ................................................................................................................ 7
Does Not Enjoy the Dollar’s Network Externalities ........................................................... 7
Price Volatility Discourages Its Use as Medium of Exchange ............................................ 7
The System’s Long-Term Deflationary Bias Will Discourage Its Use as Currency ........... 8
Bitcoin’s Network Security Is Uncertain ............................................................................ 8
Legal and Regulatory Issues ............................................................................................................ 9
Legal Considerations Generally ................................................................................................ 9
Power of Congress under Article I of the U.S. Constitution ................................................... 10
Recent Activity ........................................................................................................................ 10
Recent Legislative Activity: Congress .............................................................................. 10
Federal Regulatory Activity .............................................................................................. 12
Federal Reserve Regional Bank Activities........................................................................ 14
State Regulatory Activity ........................................................................................................ 14
New York State ................................................................................................................. 14
California .......................................................................................................................... 16
Connecticut ....................................................................................................................... 16
Conference of State Bank Supervisors.............................................................................. 17
Applicability of Selected Laws to Digital Currency ..................................................................... 18
Counterfeiting Criminal Statutes ............................................................................................. 18
The Stamp Payments Act of 1862, 18 U.S.C. Section 336 ..................................................... 19
The Electronic Fund Transfer Act, 15 U.S.C. Sections 1693 et seq. ....................................... 19
Federal Tax Law ...................................................................................................................... 19
Federal Anti-Money Laundering Laws ................................................................................... 21
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FINCEN) Actions ........................................... 21
Federal Election Campaign Act............................................................................................... 23
Federal Trade Commission Act ............................................................................................... 24
Federal Securities Regulation ................................................................................................. 25
Investments Purchased with Bitcoins ............................................................................... 25
Investing in Bitcoins ......................................................................................................... 26
Securities Investor Alerts .................................................................................................. 27
Selected SEC Sanctions .................................................................................................... 27
Texas State Action ................................................................................................................... 28
Commodity Futures Trading Commission Regulation ............................................................ 28
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Bitcoin: Questions, Answers, and Analysis of Legal Issues
International Legal Issues .............................................................................................................. 29
European Central Bank Study ................................................................................................. 29
Financial Action Task Force 2014 Guidance and 2015 Report ............................................... 30
Concern About International Monetary Fund Authority ......................................................... 31
Contacts
Author Contact Information .......................................................................................................... 32
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................... 32
Congressional Research Service
Bitcoin: Questions, Answers, and Analysis of Legal Issues
he digital currency called Bitcoin has been in existence since 2009 and for most of that
time it remained little more than a technological curiosity of interest to a small segment of
T the population. However, over the last year and a half, Bitcoin use has grown substantially;
attention by the press has surged, and recently Bitcoin caught the attention of Congress, being the
subject of two Senate hearings.1
This report has three major sections. The first section answers some basic questions about Bitcoin
and the operation of the Bitcoin network and its interaction with the current dollar-based
monetary system. The second section summarizes likely reasons for and against widespread
Bitcoin adoption. The third section discusses legal and regulatory matters that have been raised
by Bitcoin and other digital currencies.
Some Basic Questions
What Is Bitcoin?
Bitcoin first appeared in January 2009, the creation of a computer programmer using the
pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto. His invention is an open source (its controlling computer code is
open to public view), peer to peer (transactions do not require a third-party intermediary such as
PayPal or Visa), digital currency (being electronic with no physical manifestation).2
Like the U.S. dollar, the Bitcoin has no intrinsic value in that it is not redeemable for some
amount of another commodity, such as an ounce of gold. Unlike a dollar, a Bitcoin has no
physical form, is not legal tender, and is not backed by any government or any other legal entity,
and its supply is not determined by a central bank. The Bitcoin system is private, but with no
traditional financial institutions involved in transactions. Unlike earlier digital currencies that had
some central controlling person or entity, the Bitcoin network is completely decentralized, with
all parts of transactions performed by the users of the system.
How Does the Bitcoin System Work?
Bitcoin is sometimes referred to as a cryptocurrency because it relies on the principles of
cryptography (communication that is secure from view of third parties) to validate transactions
and govern the production of the currency itself. Each Bitcoin and each user is encrypted with a
unique identity, and each transaction is recorded on a decentralized public ledger (also called a
distributed ledger or a blockchain) that is visible to all computers on the network but does not
reveal any personal information about the involved parties. Cryptographic techniques enable
1 On November 18, 2013, the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs held a hearing on
Beyond Silk Road: Potential Risks, Threats, and Promises, available at http://www.hsgac.senate.gov/hearings/beyond-
silk-road-potential-risks-threats-and-promises-of-virtual-currencies. On November 19, the Senate Committee on
Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs held a hearing on The Current and Future Impact of Virtual Currencies,
available at http://www.banking.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Hearings.Hearing&Hearing_ID=955322cc-
d648-4a00-a41f-c23be8ff4cad.
2 General background discussions about Bitcoin can be found at Bitcoin, available at http://bitcoin.org/en/; Jerry Brito
and Andrea Castillo, Bitcoin: A Primer for Policymakers, Mercatus Center, George Mason University, 2013, available
at http://mercatus.org/publication/bitcoin-primer-policymakers; and Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, Chicago Fed
Letter, Bitcoin: A Primer, 2013, available at http://www.chicagofed.org/digital_assets/publications/chicago_fed_letter/
2013/cfldecember2013_317.pdf; and the Bank of England, The Economics of Digital Currencies, Quarterly Bulletin,
Q3 2014, available at http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Documents/quarterlybulletin/2014/
qb14q3digitalcurrenciesbitcoin2.pdf.
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special users on the bitcoin network, known as miners, to gather together blocks of new
transactions and compete to verify that the transactions are valid—that the buyer has the amount
of Bitcoin being spent and has transferred that amount to the seller’s account. For providing this
service, miners that successfully verify a block of transactions are rewarded by the network’s
controlling computer algorithm with 25 newly created Bitcoins.3
This decentralized management of the public ledger is the distinguishing technological attribute
of Bitcoin (and other decentralized cryptocurrencies) because it solves the so-called double
spending problem (i.e., spending money you do not own by use of forgery or counterfeiting) and
the attendant need for a trusted third party (such as a bank or credit card company) to verify the
integrity of electronic transactions between a buyer and a seller. Public ledger technology could
have implications not just for the traditional payments system but possibly also for a wide
spectrum of transactions (e.g., stocks, bonds, and other financial assets) in which records are
stored digitally.
How Are Bitcoins Obtained?
To interact on the Bitcoin network users first need to download the free and open-source
software. Once connected to the network, there are three ways to obtain Bitcoins. First, a user can
exchange conventional money (e.g., dollars, yen, and euros) for a fee on an online exchange (e.g.,
Okcoin, Coinbase, and Kraken). The exchange fee falls with the size of the transaction, ranging
from 0.5% for small transactions down to 0.2% for large transactions.
The price of Bitcoin relative to other currencies is determined by supply and demand. In mid-
January 2015, a single Bitcoin was valued at around $220. However, the price has been quite
volatile, having been less than $20 in January 2013, above $1,100 in December 2013, and around
$320 as recently as mid-December 2014 (representing more than a 30% fall in value in about one
month).4
Second, a user can obtain Bitcoins in exchange for the sale of goods or services, as when a
merchant accepts Bitcoin from a buyer for the sale of his product.
Third, as discussed earlier, a user can acquire new Bitcoins by serving as miner and applying his
or her computer’s processing power to successfully verify the validity of new network
transactions. The probability of an individual discovering Bitcoins through mining is proportional
to the amount of computer processing power that can be applied. This prospect is likely to be very
small for the typical office or home computer. The difficulty of the verification problem increases
so that Bitcoins will be discovered at a limited and predictable rate system-wide. But the
increased difficulty of verification means that the computational cost of that service also rises.
Therefore, the supply of Bitcoins does not depend on the monetary policy of a virtual central
bank. In this regard, despite being a currency with no intrinsic value, the Bitcoin system’s
operation is similar to the growth of money under a gold standard, although historically the
amount of gold mined was more erratic than the growth of the supply of Bitcoins is purported to
be. Depending on one’s perspective, this attribute of the bitcoin network can be a virtue or a vice.
3 To mine and validate a new block of transactions, miners compete to solve a difficult math problem. The miner that
solves the problem first validates the transactions in the block and broadcasts his or her proof-of-work to the bitcoin
network. Other miners in the network check the successful miner’s results. If the miner’s work is found to be correct,
he or she is rewarded by the system with 25 new bitcoins.
4 The current price of a Bitcoin can be obtained from Bitcoin-Charts available at http://bitcoincharts.com/.
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Currently, about 13.7 million Bitcoins are in circulation. However, the total number of Bitcoins
that can be generated is arbitrarily capped at 21 million coins, which is predicted to be reached in
2140. However, because a Bitcoin is divisible to eight decimal places, the maximum amount of
spendable units is more than 2 quadrillion (i.e., 2,000 trillion).5
Purchased or mined Bitcoins are thereafter stored in a digital wallet on the user’s computer or at
an online wallet service.
Are Bitcoin Transactions Anonymous?
Bitcoin transactions are not truly anonymous.6 An example of an anonymous transaction is an
exchange for cash between two strangers. In this case, no personal information need be revealed
nor does there need to be a record of the transaction. At the other extreme a non-anonymous
transaction is a typical online purchase using a credit card. This transaction requires validation by
a third-party intermediary to whom the buyer’s and seller’s identities and pertinent financial
information is known and who maintains a record of the transaction. A Bitcoin transaction falls
between these two extremes.
With a Bitcoin transaction there is no third-party intermediary. The buyer and seller interact
directly (peer to peer), but their identities are encrypted and no personal information is transferred
from one to the other. However, unlike a fully anonymous transaction, there is a transaction
record. A full transaction record of every Bitcoin and every Bitcoin user’s encrypted identity is
maintained on the public ledger. For this reason Bitcoin transactions are thought to be
pseudonymous, not anonymous.
Because of the public ledger, researchers have found that, using sophisticated computer analysis,
transactions involving large quantities of Bitcoin can be tracked and claim that if paired with
current law enforcement tools it would be possible to gain a lot of information on the persons
moving the Bitcoins.7 Also, if Bitcoin exchanges (where large transactions are most likely to
occur) are to be fully compliant with the bank secrecy regulations (i.e., anti-money laundering
laws) required of other financial intermediaries, Bitcoin exchanges will be required to collect
personal data on their customers, limiting further the system’s ability to maintain the user’s
pseudonymity.
What Is the Scale of Bitcoin Use?
Despite significant growth since its inception, Bitcoin’s scale of use remains that of a “niche”
currency. As of mid-January 2015, the total number of Bitcoins in circulation globally was about
13.7 million, up about 1 million coins from a year earlier. With its recent market price of near
$200, Bitcoin’s current market capitalization (price × number of coins in circulation) is about
$2.7 billion. However, large swings in the price of Bitcoin have caused that market capitalization
to exhibit similarly large changes during the year. As recently as December 2013, with Bitcoin
exchanging at near $1,100, the market capitalization was above $140 billion. Although numerous
5 Because the supply of Bitcoins is fixed in the long run, sustaining the payment of Bitcoins to miners for providing
verification services will be impossible. Without that subsidy, the Bitcoin network arguably could face rising
transaction costs and a diminished attractiveness when compared with traditional centralized payment systems.
6 Joshua Brustein, “Bitcoin May Not Be Anonymous After All,” Bloomberg Business Week, August 27, 2013, available
at http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2013-08-27/bitcoin-may-not-be-so-anonymous-after-all.
7 Sarah Meiklejohn et al., “A Fist Full of Bitcoins: Characterizing Payments Among Men with No Name,” University
of California, San Diego, December 2013, available at http://cseweb.ucsd.edu/~smeiklejohn/.
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vendors accept Bitcoin, the volume of transactions remains modest. During 2014, the value of
Bitcoin’s global daily transaction volume fluctuated in a range of between $40 million and $60
million, representing between 50,000 and 90,000 daily transactions.8
For comparison, in June 2014, the U.S. money supply (the sum of currency, demand deposits,
saving deposits including money market saving accounts) was about $11.3 trillion (about 1,000
times larger).9 The credit card company Visa reports that for 2013 its total dollar volume was $6.9
trillion, with an average number of daily individual transactions of near 24 million.10 In 2013,
daily transactions in dollars on global foreign exchange markets averaged over $4 trillion.11
Would Bitcoins Affect the Fed’s Conduct of Monetary Policy?
The Federal Reserve conducts monetary policy to affect the flow of money and credit to the
economy to achieve stable prices, maximum employment, and financial market stability. At
Bitcoin’s current scale of use, it is likely too small to significantly affect the Fed’s ability to
conduct monetary policy and achieve those three goals. However, if the scale of use were to grow
substantially larger, there could be reason for some concern. Conceptually, Bitcoin could have an
impact on the conduct of monetary policy to the extent that it would (1) substantially affect the
quantity of money or (2) influence the velocity (rate of circulation) of money through the
economy by reducing the demand for dollars.
Regarding the money supply, if Bitcoin transactions occur on a pre-paid basis whereby Bitcoins
enter into circulation when dollars are exchanged and then are withdrawn from circulation when
exchanged back to dollars, the net effect on the money supply would be small.
Regarding the velocity of money, if the increase in the use of Bitcoin leads to a decrease in need
for holding dollars, it would increase the dollar’s velocity of circulation and tend to increase the
money supply associated with any given amount of base money (currency in circulation plus bank
reserves held with the Fed). In this case, for the Fed to maintain the same degree of monetary
accommodation, it would need to undertake a compensating tightening of monetary policy. At a
minimum, a substantial use of Bitcoins could make the measurement of velocity more uncertain,
and judging the appropriate stance of monetary policy uncertain.12
In addition, a substantial decrease in the use of dollars would also tend to reduce the size of the
Fed’s balance sheet and introduce another factor into its consideration of how to affect short-term
interest rates (the instrument for implementing monetary policy). However, the Fed’s ability to
conduct monetary policy rests on its ability to increase or decrease the reserves of the banking
8 Bitcoin data from Bitcoin Charts available at http://bitcoincharts.com/.
9 Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Money Stock Measures (H.6), available at
http://www.federalreserve.gov/releases/h6/current/default.htm.
10 Visa, Inc., Fact Sheet, available at http://corporate.visa.com/_media/visa-fact-sheet.pdf.
11 Bank for International Settlements, “Foreign Exchange Turnover in April 2013: Preliminary Global Results,”
Triennial Central Bank Survey, September 2013, at https://www.bis.org/publ/rpfx13fx.pdf.
12 Various categories of velocity are not directly observed; rather they are calculated from observed measures of the
money supply, inflation, and output. Thus, each measure of the money supply (M1, M2, etc.) has a corresponding
velocity. To the extent that actual transactions would occur with Bitcoin instead of a traditional measure of the money
supply, the pattern of velocity could mislead policymakers regarding the effectiveness of monetary policy. On the other
hand, policymakers could incorporate Bitcoin and other electronic currency in a measure of the money supply. See
“What Does Money Velocity Tell Us About Low Inflation in the U.S.?” Yi Wen and Maria Arias, FRBSL, September
1, 2014, available at https://www.stlouisfed.org/On-The-Economy/2014/September/What-Does-Money-Velocity-Tell-
Us-about-Low-Inflation-in-the-US.
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system through open market operations. So long as there is a sizable demand by banks for liquid
dollar-denominated reserves, the Fed would likely continue to be able to influence interest rates
and conduct monetary policy.13 14
Again, any sizable effect on the U.S. monetary system is predicated on Bitcoin’s scale of use
becoming substantially greater than it is at present. An important force that is likely to hinder
such growth in Bitcoin use is the strong preference for dollar use generated by what economists
call network externalities (i.e., the value of a product or service is dependent on the number of
others using it). Network externalities create a self-generating demand for a dominant currency.
The more often a currency is used as a medium of exchange, the more liquid it becomes and the
lower are the costs of transacting in it, leading, in turn, to its becoming even more attractive to
new users. Network externalities create a tendency toward having one dominant currency and
confer a substantial incumbency advantage to the dollar in both domestic and international use.
The legal tender status of the dollar, discussed below, reinforces this advantage.15
The U.S. economy reaps considerable benefit from having a single well-defined and stable
monetary unit to work as a medium of exchange, a store of value, and unit of account to facilitate
its vast number of daily economic transactions. If greater use of Bitcoin (and other
cryptocurrencies) leads to multiple monetary units and fragmentation of the economy’s currency
system, these benefits could be threatened. However, Bitcoin does not currently pose a significant
challenge to the dollar as the principal circulating currency. As already discussed, Bitcoin is
currently a minor medium of exchange. Its substantial price volatility makes it a poor store of
value (discussed more fully below), and there is little evidence that it is being used as a unit of
account (e.g., companies pricing products exclusively in Bitcoin).
Arguments For and Against Wider Use of Bitcoin
Why Would One Want to Use Bitcoins?
Bitcoin purportedly offers three potential benefits to users: lower transaction costs, increased
privacy, and no erosion of purchasing power due to inflation.
Lower Transaction Costs for Electronic Economic Exchanges
Because there is no third-party intermediary, Bitcoin transactions are purported to be substantially
less expensive for users than those using traditional payments systems such as Paypal and credit
cards, which charge merchants significant fees for their role as a trusted third-party intermediary
to validate electronic transactions. In addition, Bitcoin sales are nonreversible, which removes the
possibility for misuse of consumer charge-backs, which merchants find costly. Merchants would
presumably pass at least some of these savings on to the customer. There is considerable
13 See also European Central Bank, Virtual Currency Schemes, October 2012, pp. 33-39, available at
http://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/virtualcurrencyschemes201210en.pdf.
14 In a letter to the Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, then Fed chairman Bernanke
noted that virtual currencies have the potential to be beneficial, but also carry risks, and while not a direct regulatory
responsibility, are monitored by the Fed. He did not express any concern about virtual currencies hindering the Fed’s
ability to conduct monetary policy. Available at http://online.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/
VCurrenty111813.pdf.
15 Hal R. Varian, Economics of Information Technology, University of California, Berkeley, March 23, 2003, available
at http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/~hal.
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anecdotal evidence to support this assumption, but no comprehensive data exist on the size of
Bitcoin’s transaction cost advantage.
Some of the transaction cost advantage could be offset by the slow speed at which Bitcoin
transactions currently occur, which, depending on the size of the transaction, can take a minimum
of 10 minutes or as long as an hour.16
In addition, Bitcoin’s advantage in transaction cost could be offset by the substantial volatility of
Bitcoin’s price. A rising dollar price of Bitcoin is likely to deter potential buyers who would
expect to see their purchasing power be greater in the future. A falling Bitcoin price is likely to
deter potential sellers who would expect to see their potential sales receipts be greater in the
future.
In the long run, the Bitcoin system will stop creating new coins, eliminating the subsidy to miners
to verify transactions. Without that subsidy, the cost of verifying a transaction is likely to
increase.
Increased Privacy
Those who seek a heightened degree of privacy may find more comfort using Bitcoins for their
(legal) commercial and financial transactions. The risk of identity theft may also be less, and
some may find the removal of government from a monetary system attractive. However, as
discussed above, Bitcoin transactions do not have the anonymity afforded by cash transactions, as
there is a permanent and complete historical record of Bitcoin amounts and encrypted identities
for all transactions on the Bitcoin system that are potentially traceable.
No Erosion of Purchasing Power by Inflation
Inflation is defined as a broad increase in the prices of goods and services. This is equivalent to
saying that there is a fall in the value of the circulating currency. That fall in value means that
each unit of the currency is exchangeable for a reduced amount of goods and services. Inflation is
commonly thought to be a monetary phenomenon in which the supply of the currency outpaces
the demand for the currency causing its unit value (in terms of what it can buy) to fall.
Most often governments (or their central bank) regulate the supply of money and credit and most
often some degree of mismanagement of this government function is at the root of a persistent
high inflation problem. In the case of Bitcoin, however, there is no government or central bank
regulating the supply of Bitcoins. The supply of Bitcoins is programmed to grow at a steady rate
regulated by the degree of mining activity (a process likely linked to a growing demand for
Bitcoin) and then is capped at a fixed amount.
Inflation could occur if the demand for Bitcoin decreases relative to the fixed supply. Inflation
could also occur if the Bitcoin network develops fractional reserve banking (i.e., banks that hold
only a fraction of their deposits in reserve and lend out the rest), which would also be a vehicle
that effectively increases the supply of circulating Bitcoins.17 If these digital banks move to a
situation where held reserves stabilize, this source of inflation would diminish.
16 See Data on transaction times at Blockchain, available at http://blockchain.info/charts/avg-confirmation-time.
17 Fractional reserves can occur when intermediaries issue obligations and rely on the unlikelihood of simultaneous
redemption in order to fund additional activity. Put more simply, the firm keeps only a fraction of its assets in reserve
to honor all of its other obligations, and uses the rest to pursue more earnings. In the case of Bitcoin, bank deposits and
similar, fractional reserve policies by intermediaries can increase the effective supply of money-like instruments, and
(continued...)
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What Factors Might Deter Widespread Bitcoin Use?
There are a number of factors that could discourage widespread use of Bitcoin.
Not Legal Tender
The dollar is legal tender and by law can be used to extinguish public or private debts. A creditor
is required to accept legal tender for the settlement of a debt. At a minimum, the payment of taxes
forces U.S. individuals to hold dollars. Arguably, for many, such a government endorsement is
comforting and creates a strong underlying demand for the dollar. By contrast, a currency like
Bitcoin that is linked to a complex computer program that many do not understand and that
operates without accountability to any controlling entity could be an unattractive vehicle for
holding wealth for many people.
Does Not Enjoy the Dollar’s Network Externalities
As noted above, the attractiveness of using a dollar is dependent on the number of people already
using it. Thus widespread use of the dollar encourages its continued use and is an impediment
(although not an insurmountable barrier) to the use of other currencies, including Bitcoins.
Price Volatility Discourages Its Use as Medium of Exchange
Bitcoin’s price has been volatile since its creation in 2009, subject to sharp appreciations and
precipitous depreciations in value. During March 2013 and April 2013, Bitcoin’s dollar exchange
rate rose from about $50 to $350 and then fell back to near $70. Bitcoin’s price moved up even
more sharply during the fall of 2013, rising from near $50 in September to more than $1,100 by
early December. During 2014, Bitcoin’s price showed large day-to-day variations but generally
trended down. By mid-January 2015, a Bitcoin was priced near $200. This is a price pattern more
typical of a commodity than of a currency to be used as a medium of exchange or a store of value.
The volatile price behavior suggests the market for Bitcoin is currently being driven by
speculative investors, not by a growing demand for Bitcoin due to increased transactions by
traditional merchants and consumers.
One problem with having the Bitcoin network dominated by speculators is that it gives users an
incentive to hoard Bitcoins rather than spend them—just the opposite of what would need to
happen to make a currency a successful medium of exchange such as the dollar.18
Speculation could be more likely to dominate the market for Bitcoins because its value cannot be
anchored to some underlying ‘fundamental’ such as an amount of some physical commodity such
as gold, the value of an earnings stream that undergirds the price of a company’s stock, or the
perceived basic soundness and stability of an economy and its governing institutions (as is,
arguably, true for the dollar).
(...continued)
therefore contribute to inflation.
18 Felix Salmon, “The Bitcoin Bubble and the Future of Currency,” Medium, April 2013, available at
https://medium.com/money-banking/2b5ef79482cb.
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The System’s Long-Term Deflationary Bias Will Discourage Its Use as
Currency
Because the supply is capped in the long run, widespread use of Bitcoin would mean that the
demand for Bitcoin would likely outstrip supply, causing Bitcoin’s price to steadily increase. The
corollary of that increase is that the Bitcoin price of goods and services would steadily fall
causing deflation. Faced with deflation, there is a strong incentive to hoard Bitcoins and not
spend them, causing the current level of transactions to fall.19
If generalized to an economy-wide phenomenon deflation could cause slower than normal
economic growth and higher than normal unemployment.
This possible outcome highlights the likely importance of the economy’s principal currency being
elastic, its supply increasing and decreasing to meet the changing needs of the economy, and of
the important role of the central bank in implementing such a monetary policy. The perils of an
inelastic currency were evident, for a period from about 1880 to 1914, when the United States
monetary system operated under a gold standard. At this time, the deflationary bias of an inelastic
supply of gold led to elevated real interest rates, caused periodic banking panics, and produced
increased instability of output. The Federal Reserve was created in 1913 to provide an elastic
currency. In particular, the generally good economic performance of the post-war era speaks to
the benefits of having a central bank to administer an elastic currency, not only to meet the
changing transaction needs of the economy, but also to proactively use monetary policy to
stabilize output and inflation.
Bitcoin’s Network Security Is Uncertain
Although counterfeiting purportedly is not possible, Bitcoin exchanges and wallet services have
at times struggled with security. Cash and traditional electronic payment systems also have
periodic security problems, but a high incidence of security problems on a system trying to
establish itself and gain customer confidence could be more damaging. Some notable examples of
security breaches on the Bitcoin network have included the following:
In January 2015, Bitstamp, a large European Bitcoin exchange, suspended
services after a security breach involving the loss of 19,000 Bitcoin, valued at
about $5 million.20
Hackers mounted a massive series of distributed denial-of-service attacks against
the most popular Bitcoin exchange, Mt. Gox, in 2013. About 850,000 Bitcoin
valued at over $400 million were stolen. Mt. Gox subsequently declared
bankruptcy.21
In late August 2012, an operation titled Bitcoin Savings and Trust was shut down
by the owner, allegedly leaving around $5.6 million in bitcoin-based debts.22
19 Dan Kervick, “Bitcoin’s Deflationary Weirdness,” New Economic Perspectives, April 2013, available at
http://neweconomicperspectives.org/2013/04/talking-bitcoin.html.
20 Mariella Moon , “Bitcoin Exchange Loses $5 Million in Security Breach,” Engadget, available at
http://www.engadget.com/2015/01/06/bitstamp-bitcoin-exchange-hack/.
21 Mitt Clinch, “Bitcoin Hacked: Price Stumbles After Buying Frenzy,” CNBC, April 4, 2013, available at
http://www.cnbc.com/id/100615508.
22 Adrianne Jeffries, “Suspected Multi-Million Dollar Bitcoin Pyramid Scheme Shuts Down, Investors Revolt,” The
Verge, August 27, 2012, available at http://www.theverge.com/2012/8/27/3271637/bitcoin-savings-trust-pyramid-
scheme-shuts-down.
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In September 2012, Bitfloor, a Bitcoin exchange, reported being hacked, with
24,000 Bitcoins (roughly equivalent to $250,000) stolen. As a result, Bitfloor
temporarily suspended operations.23
On April 3, 2013, Instawallet, a web-based wallet provider, was hacked, resulting
in the theft of over 35,000 Bitcoins. With a price of $129.90 per Bitcoin at the
time, or nearly $4.6 million in total, Instawallet suspended operations.24
On August 11 2013, the Bitcoin Foundation announced that a bug in the software
within the Android operating system had been exploited to steal from users’
wallets.25
October 23 and 26, 2013, a Bitcoin bank operated from Australia but stored on
servers in the United States was hacked, with a loss of 4,100 Bitcoins, or over 1
million Australian dollars.26
Legal and Regulatory Issues
Legal Considerations Generally
In order to provide some information on recent efforts by federal, state, and international
authorities to study, monitor, or regulate digital currencies, this section of the report (1) identifies
the clause in the U.S. Constitution giving power to Congress over money; (2) describes some of
the recent federal, state, and international activities and studies dealing with digital money; and
(3) identifies some of the federal laws that might be implicated or that have been used with
respect to digital money.
In providing this information, we have identified some federal statutes and regulatory regimes
that may have some applicability to digital currency, although none contains explicit language to
that effect or explicitly mentions currency not issued by a government authority. Some federal
statutes, because of their broad coverage, are likely to be held by courts to apply in connection
with digital currency. For example, courts are likely to hold that the federal criminal mail and
wire fraud statutes apply to fraudulent schemes designed to result in monetary losses in
connection with buying, selling, or trading digital currencies.27 Federal statutes providing
consumer protection with respect to consumer financial transactions, however, such as the Truth
23 Vitalik Burterin, “Bitfloor Hacked, $250,000 Missing,” Bitcoin Magazine, September 4, 2012, available at
http://bitcoinmagazine.com/2139/bitfloor-hacked-250000-missing/.
24 Joe Weisenthal, “Bitcoin Service Instawallet: We’ve Been Hacked and are Suspending Service Indefinitely,”
Business Insider, April 3, 2013, available at http://www.businessinsider.com/instawallet-suspended-2013-4.
25 Richard Chirgwen, “Android Bug Batters Bitcoin Wallets,” The Register, August 12, 2013, available at
http://www.theregister.co.uk/2013/08/12/android_bug_batters_bitcoin_wallets/.
26 Ben Grubb, “Australian Bitcoin Bank Hacked: $1 Million + Stolen,” Brisbane Times, November 8, 2013, available at
http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/it-pro/security-it/australian-bitcoin-bank-hacked-1m-stolen-20131108-hv2iv.html.
27 These include 18 U.S.C. §§1341 (mail fraud) and 1343 (wire fraud). The wire fraud statute, for example, applies to
“[w]hoever, having devised or intending to devise any scheme or artifice to defraud, or for obtaining money or property
by means of false or fraudulent pretenses, representations, or promises, transmits or causes to be transmitted by means
of wire, radio, or television communication in interstate or foreign commerce, any writings, signs, signals, pictures, or
sounds for the purpose of executing such scheme or artifice.” Regulation Z, 12 C.F.R. 226, implementing the Truth in
Lending Act (TILA) is premised on credit transactions, interest, and fees in terms of U.S. money. At present it is a
matter of pure speculation as to whether the Consumer Financial Protection Board (CFPB), the agency charged with
implementing TILA, could reasonably interpret the statute, given its language, structure, and legislative history, as a
basis for issuing regulations to cover transactions in digital money.
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in Lending Act28 and the Truth in Savings Act,29 include no language specifically referencing
digital currency transactions.30
Power of Congress under Article I of the U.S. Constitution
One of the direct powers of Congress under the U.S. Constitution, the grant of authority “to coin
Money” and “regulate the Value thereof,”31 appears to provide sufficient authority for extensive
oversight and control of digital money. The Supreme Court has interpreted this clause broadly.
The clause has been upheld to authorize legislation chartering the First Bank of the United States
and giving it power to issue circulating notes.32 Legislation requiring U.S. Treasury notes to be
treated as legal tender for antecedent debts33 and legislation that abrogated gold clauses in private
contracts34 have also been upheld on the basis of this clause of the Constitution. The breadth of
the power can be discerned from a statement of the Court in the Legal Tender Cases when the
Court opined that “[e]very contract for the payment of money simply is necessarily subject to the
constitutional power of the government over the currency, whatever that power may be, and the
obligation of the parties is therefore assumed with reference to that power.”35
Recent Activity
This section provides a brief survey of some of the concerns and activities of federal, state, and
international governmental entities with respect to the emergence of digital currencies.
Recent Legislative Activity: Congress
In Congress, interest in virtual currencies is at the exploratory stage. The Senate Finance
Committee directed the Government Accountability Office (GAO) to review any tax
requirements and compliance risks implicated and to assess the Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
efforts at informing the public in view of the offshore and Internet sources of these currencies. On
May 13, 2013, GAO released a survey36 describing the types of virtual currencies, the inadequacy
of available data on them, and the extent of IRS efforts. It noted that IRS guidance on virtual
currencies37 concentrates on currencies used in virtual communities, such as Linden Dollars in
Second Life, and overlooks currencies, such as Bitcoin, that can be used in the real economy.
GAO also noted that the tax code lacked clarity about how virtual currency is to be treated for
reporting purposes. Is it property, barter, foreign currency, or a financial instrument?
28 15 U.S.C. §§1601 et seq.
29 12 U.S.C. §§4301-4313. (This applies to deposits held at depository institutions, i.e., banks, thrifts, savings
associations, and credit unions.)
30 A list of the regulations implementing federal laws providing consumer protection for financial transactions can be
found on the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau’s (CFPB’s) website at http://www.consumerfinance.gov/
regulations/#ecfr.
31 U.S. Const., Art. I, §8, cl. 5.
32 McCulloch v. Maryland, 17 U.S. (4 Wheat.) 316 (1819); Veazie Bank v. Fenno, 75 U.S. (8 Wall.) 533 (1869).
33 Legal Tender Cases (Knox v. Lee), 79 U.S. (12 Wall.) 457(1871); Juilliard v. Greenman, 110 U.S. 421 (1884).
34 Norman v. Baltimore & Ohio R.R., 294 U.S. 240 (1935).
35 Legal Tender Cases (Knox v. Lee), 79 U.S. (12 Wall.) 457, 549 (1871).
36 U.S. Government Accountability Office, Virtual Economies and Currencies: Additional IRS Guidance Could Reduce
Tax Compliance Risks, GAO-14-496, May 2013.
37 Internal Revenue Service, “Tax Consequences of Virtual World Transactions,” at http://www.irs.gov/Businesses/
Small-Businesses-&-Self-Employed/Tax-Consequences-of-Virtual-World-Transactions.
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The Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee has begun to look into how
federal agencies are confronting the rise of virtual currencies. On August 12, 2013, the
committee’s chairman and ranking Member sent letters38 to several federal agencies, including the
Departments of Justice (DOJ), the Treasury, and Homeland Security; the Securities and Exchange
Commission (SEC); the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC); and the Federal
Reserve, seeking information on their virtual currency policies, initiatives, activities, guidelines,
or plans regarding virtual or digital currency. The committee envisions a government-wide
approach to the threats and promises of digital currency. The committee requested that the GAO
examine possible policy issues related to the emergency of digital currency.
In response to the Senate Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee request, GAO
issued a GAO report in May 2014, Virtual Currencies: Emerging Regulatory, Law Enforcement,
and Consumer Protection Challenges.39 The GAO report details the responsibilities of and efforts
undertaken by various federal financial services regulators and law enforcement agencies to
address the implications of virtual currency.40 The report includes a chart that lists interagency
working groups along with their participating agencies, missions, and how they are addressing
virtual currencies. GAO’s evaluation of the current responsibilities of the various federal
agencies, the work of the interagency working groups, and the kinds of actions undertaken to date
led it to focus on the lack of efforts to tackle consumer protection issues related to virtual
currencies. The report noted that the federal agency charged with implementing the federal laws
that cover financial services provided to consumers, the Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
(CFPB),41 was not heavily involved in the interagency task forces. The report, therefore,
recommended more attention to consumer protection and increased CFPB participation in
interagency task forces:
recent events suggest that consumer protection is an emerging risk, as evidenced by the
loss or theft of bitcoins from exchanges and virtual wallet providers and consumer
warnings issued by nonfederal and non-U.S. entities. However, federal interagency
working groups addressing virtual currencies have thus far not emphasized consumer-
protection issues, and participation by the federal government’s lead consumer financial
protection agency, CFPB, has been limited.42
The CFPB responded by indicating that, as of the date of the GAO inquiry, all of CFPB’s efforts
to deal with virtual currency had been informal exchanges with federal, state, and international
regulators. It assured GAO that, in the future, it would “identify interagency working groups
addressing virtual currencies where the CFPB’s participation would enhance its own work ... and
... contribute valuable consumer protection expertise to those efforts.”43 Subsequently, on August
38 See http://www.hsgac.senate.gov/reports/letters.
39 See http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-14-496.
40 Agencies included are the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, the CFPB, the Commodity Futures
Trading Commission, the Department of Homeland Security (including the U.S. Immigration and Customs
Enforcement and the U.S. Secret Service), the Department of Justice (including the Federal Bureau of Investigation),
the Department of the Treasury (including the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network and the Office of the
Comptroller of the Currency), the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, the National Credit Union Administration,
and the Securities and Exchange Commission.
41 12 U.S.C. §5491(a).
42 GAO-14-496, at 39-40.
43 Ibid., at 49, Letter to Lawrence Evans, Jr., director Financial Markets and Community Investment, U.S. Government
Accountability Office, from William Wade-Grey, acting assistant director, Card and Payment Markets, CFPB (May 6,
2014).
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11, 2014, the CFPB issued a consumer advisory identifying characteristics of Bitcoin and
describing pitfalls and issues of virtual currency, in general, and Bitcoin, in particular.44
Federal Regulatory Activity
Federal regulators are increasingly scrutinizing how virtual currency and Bitcoin relate to their
mandates. Law enforcement agencies have had to confront criminal hacking of Bitcoin wallets
and kidnappers requiring ransom payment in Bitcoins.45 Moreover, the Department of the
Treasury stated that terrorists are embracing Bitcoin.46
In a June 26, 2015, speech at a conference on digital currencies, a Department of Justice official
provided a brief sketch of some federal Bitcoin prosecutions and called upon the financial
services industry to be alert to possible abuses involving digital currencies.47 Some federal
agencies, including the CFPB, are contemplating further action. After issuing a consumer
advisory on the pitfalls associated with Bitcoin, the CFPB began accepting consumer complaints
on virtual currency and Bitcoin issues.48
Other federal regulatory activity includes guidance49 issued by Treasury’s Financial Crimes
Enforcement Network (FINCEN) and a Winkelvoss Bitcoin Trust registration statement50 filed
with the SEC. In addition, the SEC published advisories for investors in 201351 and 201452 on the
threat of virtual currency scams on the Internet; filed a criminal fraud complaint53 charging a
Bitcoin exchange with engaging in a Ponzi scheme; and successfully convinced a federal district
court that Bitcoins are money. The court reasoned that because Bitcoins are used as money to
purchase goods or services and can be exchanged for conventional currencies, they are money,
and, thus, a contract for the investment of Bitcoins is an “investment contract,” and, therefore, a
44 CFPB, “CFPB Warns Consumers About Bitcoin,” August 11, 2014, http://www.consumerfinance.gov/newsroom/
cfpb-warns-consumers-about-bitcoin/.
45 See Kasia Klimasinska, “Terrorists Eying Bitcoin, Social Media to Fund Jihad, U.S. Says,” Bloomberg BNA Banking
Daily, June 15, 2015; Nathaniel Popper, “For Ransom, Bitcoin Replaces the Bag of Bills,” New York Times Deal Book,
July 25, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/26/business/dealbook/for-ransom-bitcoin-replaces-the-bag-of-
bills.html.
46Department of the Treasury, “National Terrorist Risk Assessment,” at pp. 57-58 (2015), http://www.treasury.gov/
press-center/press-releases/Pages/jl0072.aspx.
47 U.S. Department of Justice, “Assistant Attorney General Leslie R. Caldwell Delivers Remarks at the ABA’s National
Institute on Bitcoin and Other Digital Currencies,” press release, June 26, 2015, http://www.justice.gov/opa/speech/
assistant-attorney-general-leslie-r-caldwell-delivers-remarks-aba-s-national-institute.
48 The CFPB has “announced that consumers who encounter a problem with a virtual currency product or service can
now submit a complaint with the Bureau.” See CFPB, “CFPB Warns Consumers About Bitcoin,” August 11, 2014,
http://www.consumerfinance.gov/newsroom/cfpb-warns-consumers-about-bitcoin/.
49 U.S. Department of the Treasury, Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, “Application of FinCEN’s Regulations to
Persons Administering, Exchanging, or Using Virtual Currencies,” March 18, 2013, http://www.fincen.gov/
statutes_regs/guidance/html/FIN-2013-G001.html.
50 Form S-1 Registration Statement, Winkelvoss Bitcoin Trust, http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1579346/
000119312513279830/d562329ds1.htm.
51U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Office of Investor Education and Advocacy, “Investor Alert: Ponzi
Schemes Using Virtual Currencies,” SEC Pub. No. 153 (7/13); U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, “SEC
Charges Texas Man with Running Bitcoin-Denominated Ponzi Scheme” press release 2013-132, July 23, 2013,
http://www.sec.gov/News/PressRelease/Detail/PressRelease/1370539730583.
52 U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, “Investor Alert: Bitcoin and Other Virtual Currency-Related
Investments,” May 7, 201), http://investor.gov/news-alerts/investor-alerts/investor-alert-bitcoin-other-virtual-currency-
related-investments#.U7rMyCgYCZQ.
53 See http://www.sec.gov/litigation/complaints/2013/comp-pr2013-132.pdf.
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security under federal securities law.54 In another enforcement action, the Department of
Homeland Security charged Mt. Gox, which is the Japanese-based largest Bitcoin exchange in the
United States, with operating an unlicensed money services business in violation of 18 U.S.C.
Section 1960 and seized its bank account. Subsequently, Mt. Gox filed for bankruptcy in Japan,
and on June 14, 2014, a federal bankruptcy judge approved its petition under Chapter 15 of the
U.S. Bankruptcy Code, allowing the U.S. bankruptcy court to protect its U.S. assets while the
bankruptcy proceedings continue abroad.55
The federal banking regulators have yet to issue guidance or regulations governing how banks are
to deal with Bitcoin, outside of the anti-money laundering framework. Under current law, the
federal banking regulator with the greatest responsibility over the payment system is the Board of
Governors of the Federal Reserve System.56 In February 2014, Federal Reserve Chair Janet
Yellen told the Senate Banking Committee that “Bitcoin is a payment innovation that’s taking
place outside the banking industry. To the best of my knowledge there’s no intersection at all, in
any way, between Bitcoin and banks that the Federal Reserve has the ability to supervise and
regulate.”57 Nonetheless, the Federal Reserve Board, in its May 9, 2014, joint meeting with its
Federal Advisory Council, considered Bitcoin’s potential as “a threat to the banking system,
economic activity, or financial stability” and appears to have adopted a policy that may be
characterized as watchful waiting.58 That policy produced no regulatory issuances in 2014.
However, studies of the technical aspects of Bitcoin were featured in three research papers, two
issued by Federal Reserve regional banks59 and one published by the Federal Reserve Board’s
Divisions of Research and Statistics and Monetary Affairs.60
54 Securities and Exchange Commission v. Shavers, 2013 WL4028182, No. 4:13-CV-416 (E.D. Tex. August 6, 2013).
This appears to be the first ruling addressing the question of whether digital currency issued without the backing of a
government or other official entity is to be legally considered money.
55 Michael Balthon, “Mt. Gox U.S. Bankruptcy Approved to Help Bitcoin Hunt,” Bloomberg News, June 17, 2014,
http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2014-06-17/mt-gox-u-s-bankruptcy-approved-to-help-bitcoin-hunt.html.
56 A section of the U.S. Code is entitled “Regulatory responsibility of Board for payment system,” 12 U.S.C. §4008.
Under that provision, which was enacted as part of the Expedited Funds Availability Act of 1987, Congress has
delegated to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System “responsibility to regulate ... any aspect of the
payment system, including the receipt, payment, collection, or clearing of checks, and any related function of the
payment system with respect to checks.”
57 Senate Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, Semiannual Monetary Policy Report to the Congress,
February 27, 2014, available at http://www.banking.senate.gov/public/index.cfm?FuseAction=Newsroom.Video.
58 Federal Advisory Council and Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, Record of Meeting, May 9, 2014,
http://www.federalreserve.gov/aboutthefed/fac.htm/. The Record of the Meeting at p. 10 includes the following
statement with respect to Bitcoin: “Systemically, Bitcoin’s nascency makes it more curiosity than threat. Its greatest
near-term hazards are its avoidance of consumer protection measures and illicit use, both of which support increased
regulation. Medium- to long-term effects could be more pronounced as the network self-refines and adoption increases,
requiring traditional payment processors to adapt and respond.”
59 François R. Velde, “Bitcoin: A Primer,” Chicago Fed Letter, December 2013, https://www.chicagofed.org/
publications/chicago-fed-letter/2013/december-317; and Stephanie Lo and J. Christina Wang, “Bitcoin as Money,”
Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, Current Policy Perspectives, No. 14-4, http://www.bostonfed.org/economic/current-
policy-perspectives/2014/cpp1404.htm; and Tim Sablik, “Digital Currency: New Private Currencies Like Bitcoin Offer
Potential—and Puzzles,” Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond EconFocus (3d Quarter 2013).
60 Anton Badev and Matthew Chen, Bitcoin: Technical Background and Data Analysis, Federal Reserve Board,
Divisions of Research & Statistics and Monetary Affairs, Finance and Economics Discussion Series 2014-10, October
7, 2014, http://www.federalreserve.gov/econresdata/feds/2014/files/2014104pap.pdf.
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Federal Reserve Regional Bank Activities
At least three Federal Reserve economists are studying digital currencies and Bitcoin in
particular.61 Moreover, a director of Risk, Policy, and Analytics in the Banking, Supervision and
Regulation Division of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco recently published an article
geared to alerting community bankers to the implications, including the “potential opportunities
and risks.”62
State Regulatory Activity
State authorities moving in the direction of regulating virtual currencies sometimes discover
problems in applying existing laws to technological currencies. Three states—New York,
California, and Connecticut—have taken steps to devise a regulatory framework that could usher
in increased use of digital currencies,63 provided adequate consumer protections and regulatory
safeguards can be developed.64 In an effort to assist states in developing regulations to license and
supervise virtual currency operations, the Conference of State Bank Supervisors (CSBS),65
released a CSBS Model Regulatory Framework for State Regulation of Certain Virtual Currency
Activities (CSBS Model Framework)66 on September 15, 2015. According to the CSBS, the
CBSB Model Regulatory Framework “includes components that CSBS has identified as key to a
virtual currency regulatory regime that protects consumers and the larger marketplace, while
supporting responsible innovation.”67
New York State
On June 3, 2015, New York State became the first state to establish a framework for regulating
digital currency businesses when the New York State Department of Financial Services
(NYSDFS) issued regulations providing for prudential supervision of virtual currency businesses
operating in New York State.68 Moreover, on May 7, 2015, New York State issued its first virtual
currency license to a Bitcoin exchange, itBit Trust Company, LLC, which also received a license
61 François R. Velde, “Bitcoin: A Primer,” Chicago Fed Letter, December 2013, http://www.chicagofed.org/
digital_assets/publications/chicago_fed_letter/2013/cfldecember2013_317.pdf; Stephanie Lo and J. Christina Wang,
“Bitcoin as Money,” Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, Current Policy Perspectives, No. 14-4,
http://www.bostonfed.org/economic/current-policy-perspectives/2014/cpp1404.htm.
62 Wallace Young, “What Community Bankers Should Know About Virtual Currencies,” Federal Reserve Bank of San
Francisco Community Banking Connections” (2d Quarter, 2015).
63 Evan Weinberger, “NY Bitcoin Rules Put Virtual Currency On Path to Legitimacy,” Law 360 (July 17, 2014),
http://www.law360.com/articles/558472?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=articles_search.
64 Michael Bobelian, “New York’s Financial Regulator, Benjamin Lawsky, Maintains Lead on Bitcoin Regulation,”
Forbes (July 25, 2014), http://www.forbes.com/sites/michaelbobelian/2014/07/25/new-yorks-financial-regulator-
benjamin-lawsky-maintains-lead-on-bitcoin-regulation/.
65 The Conference of State Bank Supervisors (CSBS) is an organization representing state banking regulators. See
http://www.csbs.org/about/what/Pages/default.aspx.
66 CSBS, “State Regulators Issue Model Regulatory Framework for Virtual Currency Activities,” media release,
September 15, 2014, https://www.csbs.org/news/press-releases/pr2015/Pages/PR091515.aspx?PF=1.
67 Ibid.
68 New York Department of Financial Services, Superintendent Benjamin A. Lawsky, “NYSDFS Announces Final
Bitlicense Framework for Regulating Digital Currency Firms,” speech, June 3, 2015, http://www.dfs.ny.gov/about/
speeches/sp1506031.htm. (Contains a link to New York Codes, Rules and Regulations, Tit. 23, Ch. I, Regulations of
the Department of Financial Services, Part 200, Virtual Currencies.)
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to operate as a trust under New York State banking law.69 In September 2015, New York granted
the first BitLicense application to a virtual currency firm, Circle Internet Financial.70 On October
5, 2015, a New York license to operate as a trust was issued to a Bitcoin exchange, Gemini Trust
Company LLC, which was founded by Cameron and Tyler Winlevoss.71
The New York regulations are the result of efforts of the NYSDFS that began in 2014 with the
issuance of subpoenas seeking information on a raft of virtual currency issues.72 On January 28-
29, 2014, 73 the NYSDFS held public hearings on possible regulation of virtual currencies and, on
July 17, 2014, issued, for public comment, a proposal to license and regulate virtual currency
businesses operating in New York State.74 A revised proposal was issued in February 2015.75
The final regulations require that businesses involved in transmitting, storing, buying, selling,
exchanging, issuing, or administering a virtual currency must be licensed by the NYSDFS.
Licenses are not required for digital currencies used exclusively in an online gaming environment
or for digital currencies that can be redeemed for goods and services, provided they cannot be
exchanged for fiat money (such as U.S. currency). Licenses are not required for software
developers or merchants investing in virtual currencies or using virtual currencies solely to buy
and sell goods and services. A state-chartered bank may be approved by the NYSDFS to operate
as a virtual currency exchange without securing a virtual currency license.
The regulations prescribe standards for virtual currency businesses and establish procedures for
the NYSDFS to use in approving, suspending, or revoking virtual currency licenses. Before
granting a license, the NYSDFS must investigate the financial condition, character, and general
fitness of any applicant. A license may be granted only when it has been determined that the
business will be conducted “honestly, fairly, equitably, carefully, and efficiently ... and in a
manner commanding the confidence and trust of the community.”76
The regulations provide the NYSDFS with broad authority to prescribe minimum capital
requirements and to subject licensees to any condition deemed “appropriate.” The licensing
process requires the submission of detailed information on principal officers, principal
stockholders, principal beneficiaries, and members of the board of directors, and fingerprints
from certain officers and employees with access to customer funds. Applicants are also required
to supply information on banking arrangements; fulfillment of tax obligations; methodology for
valuing the virtual currency; and products and services to be offered. The regulation requires
69 New York State Department of Financial Services, press release, “NYDFS Grants First Charter to a New York
Virtual Currency Company,” May 7, 2015, http://www.dfs.ny.gov/about/press/pr1505071.htm.
70 New York State Department of Financial Services, press release, “NYSDFS Announces Approval of First Bitlicense
from a Virtual Currency Firm,” September 22, 2015, http://www.dfs.ny.gov/about/press/pr1509221.htm.
71 New York State Department of Financial Services, press release, “NYSDFS Grants Charter to ‘Gemini’ Bitcoin
Exchange Founded by Cameron and Tyler Winkelvoss,” October 5, 2015, http://www.dfs.ny.gov/about/press/
pr1510051.htm.
72 New York State Department of Financial Services, “Notice of Inquiry on Virtual Currencies,” August 12, 2013,
http://www.dfs.ny.gov/about/press2013/memo1308121.pdf.
73 See http://www.dfs.ny.gov/about/hearings/vc_01282014_indx.htm.
74New York State Department of Financial Services, Proposed Regulations Submitted for a 45-Day Notice and
Comment Period to Solicit Public Feedback, http://www.dfs.ny.gov/about/press2014/pr1407171.html.
75 The text of the original proposal, the revised proposal, and the final regulations, together with public comments, may
be found at the New York Department of Financial Services website at http://www.dfs.ny.gov/legal/
vcrf_comments_3749_up.htm.
76NYCRR, Tit. 23, sec. 200.6; 37 N.Y. Reg. 7 (June 24, 2015).
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regulatory periodic examinations; financial disclosures; and approval of change of control and
mergers or acquisitions.
There are anti-money laundering provisions in addition to those required under federal law,77
cyber security, and anti-fraud requirements, and an array of consumer protection provisions.
Customers must be provided with disclosures that address such matters as price volatility;
whether transactions are reversible; risk of fraud; liability for unauthorized transactions; and the
possibility that future legislation will have an adverse impact. Under the regulations, each virtual
currency business operating in New York will be required, before each transaction, to disclose
specified information in writing and have the disclosure acknowledged by the customer.
Start-up virtual currency businesses will be able to qualify for a conditional license that would be
issued for two years that would be renewable at the discretion of the New York State
Superintendent of Financial Services. Before a conditional license is issued, the NYSDFS must
consider various factors, including the potential risks and measures to be taken to mitigate them;
whether the business is a regulated or licensed financial service provider; and previous business
experience of the applicant.
California
California has enacted legislation opening the way for virtual currency to be used to purchase
goods and services. California Assembly bill no. 129, signed into law by Governor Jerry Brown
on June 29, 2014, repeals a provision of California law that outlawed anything circulating as
money other than the lawful money of the United States.78 In addition, it appears that the
California Department of Business Oversight is in the process of considering whether to regulate
virtual currency businesses.79
Connecticut
On June 19, 2015, Connecticut enacted legislation80 amending the Connecticut Money
Transmission Act81 to require licenses for all virtual currency businesses operating in
Connecticut. The legislation not only subjects them to requirements imposed on money services
businesses, such as currency exchanges and money transmitters, it includes provisions
establishing additional standards for virtual currency businesses. The legislation defines “virtual
currency business” to mean “any type of digital unit that is used as a medium of exchange or a
form of digitally stored value or that is incorporated into payment system technology.”82 Virtual
currency used solely for online gaming and virtual currency that is part of a consumer rewards
77 See Raveena Benepal, “Money Laundering Emerges as Contentious BitLicense Provision,” Bloomberg BNA Banking
Daily, July 29, 2015. Included in the requirements are appointment of a compliance officer and annual compliance
audits.
78 See http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201320140AB129.
79 See California Department of Business Oversight, “What You Should Know About Virtual Currencies” (April 22,
2014), and “DBO Commissioner Owen Clarifies Coinbase Exchange’s Regulatory Status in California” (January 27,
2015). The latter states that “The California Department of Business Oversight has not decided whether to regulate
virtual currency transactions, or the businesses that arrange such transactions, under the state’s Money Transmission
Act.” Both are available at http://www.dbo.ca.gov/search.asp?q=virtual+currency&cx=
001779225245372747843%3Ayckvhkzkpng&cof=FORID%3A10&ie=UTF-8.
80 Conn. Pub. Act No. 15-53 (June 19, 2015), http://www.cga.ct.gov/2015/act/pa/2015PA-00053-R00HB-06800-
PA.htm.
81 Conn. Gen. Stat. §§ 36a-595 to 36a-612, http://www.cga.ct.gov/current/pub/chap_668.htm#sec_36a-595.
82 Conn. Gen. Stat. § 36a-596(14).
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program that cannot be converted into fiat currency are not covered by the definition. Under the
legislation, virtual currency businesses must maintain a surety bond sufficient to account for the
potential volatility of the digital currency. Under the legislation, the Connecticut Banking
Commissioner has broad authority to impose conditions when granting a virtual currency license
and may disapprove an application upon determining that issuing the license would subject
“undue risk of financial loss to consumers, considering the applicant’s proposed business
model.”83
Conference of State Bank Supervisors
On December 14, 2014, the CSBS issued its Draft Model Regulatory Framework84 in an attempt
to begin a process for states to develop some level of consistency in their approaches to the
regulation of virtual currency businesses while emphasizing the need for flexibility. The release
of the draft framework was accompanied by requests for public comment on 20 questions that
attempted to discern such matters as the extent to which regulatory frameworks that cover money
services businesses must be tailored to cover companies handling diverse virtual currency
activities. Issues covered in the questions ranged from the advisability of one-size-fits-all
regulation to such matters as how to denominate capital requirements—dollars or virtual
currency.
After reviewing comments received from the public and conducting consultations with regulators
and other stakeholders, the CSBS finalized the draft framework and released the “CSBS Model
Regulatory Framework for State Regulation of Certain Virtual Currency Activities” (Model
Framework) on September 15, 2015.85 The Model Framework sets a standard for state regulation
of virtual currency activities by entities not included in state regulation of depository institutions.
It recommends that states adopt laws to cover firms and activities handling virtual currency that
parallel their laws governing firms and activities involving sovereign currency. The Model
Framework, therefore, covers firms transmitting virtual currency and firms exchanging virtual
currency. It also includes firms providing services to virtual currency transmitters and exchanges,
such as purveyors of wallets, payment processors, and merchant acquirers. The Model
Framework, however, does not include a special regime for startup companies. Instead, the CSBS
advises any state that chooses to include separate arrangements for new companies to devise
adequate consumer protections.
The Model Framework’s definition of virtual currency86 begins by stating that “[v]irtual currency
is a digital representation of value used as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, or a store of
83 Conn. Gen. Stat. § 36a-600(7)(c).
84 Conference of State Bank Supervisors, “State Regulatory Requirements for Virtual Currency Activities; CSBS Draft
Model Regulatory Framework and Request for Public Comment,” December 16, 2014, http://www.csbs.org/regulatory/
ep/Pages/framework.aspx.
85 CSBS, “State Regulators Issue Model Regulatory Framework for Virtual Currency Activities,” media release,
September 15, 2014, https://www.csbs.org/news/press-releases/pr2015/Pages/PR091515.aspx?PF=1.
86 Ibid. The definition is as follows:
Virtual Currency is a digital representation of value used as a medium of exchange, a unit of
account, or a store of value, but does not have legal tender status as recognized by the United States
Government. Virtual Currency does not include the software or protocols governing the transfer of
the digital representation of value. Virtual Currency does not include stored value redeemable
exclusively in goods or services limited to transactions involving a defined merchant. Virtual
Currency does not include units of value that are issued in affinity or rewards programs and that
cannot be redeemed for either fiat or virtual currencies. Virtual currency, as used in this framework,
includes “digital currency” and ‘cryptocurrency.
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value, but does not have legal tender status as recognized by the United States government.” The
definition excludes the software employed in virtual currency operations and certain stored value
and rewards programs as well as the following types of activities:
Merchants and consumers who use virtual currencies solely for the purchase or sale of
goods or services;
Activities that are not financial in nature but utilize technologies similar to those used by
digital currency;
Activities involving units of value that are issued in affinity or rewards programs and that
cannot be redeemed for either fiat or virtual currencies; or
Activities involving units of value that are used solely within online gaming platforms
and have no market or application outside of those gaming platforms.87
The Model Framework embodies a regulatory scheme that is similar to the types of regulation
currently applicable under state law to financial firms handling transactions involving U.S. dollars
or other fiat money. The Model Framework includes requirements for supervision, examination,
and enforcement authority over virtual currency businesses and activities. It specifies that a state’s
virtual currency regulatory regime should cover licensing, capital and investment standards,
consumer protection, cyber security, and compliance standards. Although the Model Framework
includes requirements for surety bonds, it does not require cyber insurance.
Applicability of Selected Laws to Digital Currency
Counterfeiting Criminal Statutes
The basic governmental interest in enacting laws against counterfeiting obligations of the United
States is protecting the value of the dollar and the monetary system. Under title 18 U.S.C.
Sections 470-477 and 485-489 counterfeiting and forging of U.S. coins, currency, and obligations
is subject to criminal sanctions, and under 18 U.S.C. Sections 478-483, criminal sanctions are
prescribed for counterfeiting foreign coins, currency, and obligations. None of these statutes,
however, applies expressly to a currency that exists only on the Internet and in computers in a
digital form. Although the usual prosecution under these statutes involves attempts to replicate
Federal Reserve notes or coins produced by the U.S. Mint, at least one case involved a conviction
for issuing and circulating Liberty Dollars, designed as similar to but distinguishable from U.S.
dollars and intended to “limit reliance on, and to compete with, United States currency.”88
Whether a digital currency, even if it is designed to attack the value of U.S. legal tender, could be
prosecuted under the current language of these statutes is not clear.89
87 Ibid.
88 U.S. Attorney’s Office, Western District of North Carolina, “Defendant Convicted of Minting His Own Currency,”
press release, March 18, 2011, http://www.fbi.gov/charlotte/press-releases/2011/defendant-convicted-of-minting-his-
own-currency.
89 For a discussion, see, Derek A. Dion, “I’ll Gladly Trade You Two Bits on Tuesday for a Byte Today: Bitcoin,
Regulating Fraud in the E-Conomy of Hacker-Cash,” University of Illinois, Journal of Law, Technology and Policy,
vol. 2013 (Spring 2013).
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The Stamp Payments Act of 1862, 18 U.S.C. Section 336
The Stamp Payments Act makes it a crime to issue, circulate, or pay out “any note, check,
memorandum, token or other obligation, for a less sum than $1, intended to circulate as money or
to be received or used in lieu of lawful money of the United States.” This law was enacted in
1862 to protect postage stamps from competition by private tokens. Congress had approved
stamps as currency for fractions of $1 because metal coins were being hoarded and were virtually
out of circulation.90 It does not seem likely that a currency91 that has no physicality would be held
to be covered by this statute even though it circulates on the Internet on a worldwide basis and is
used for some payments of less than $1. The language of the statute, “note, check, memorandum,
token,” seems to contemplate a concrete object rather than a computer file; moreover, a digital
currency such as Bitcoin, without a third-party issuer, cannot be said to be an obligation.
However, there are some arguments that could be made, particularly should a digital currency
become pervasive enough to be considered a possible competitor to U.S. official currency.92
The Electronic Fund Transfer Act, 15 U.S.C. Sections 1693 et seq.
The Electronic Fund Transfer Act (EFTA) establishes a framework for transfers of money
electronically, but its coverage is limited in such a way that it appears not to be applicable to a
digital currency in transactions involving no depository institution. The EFTA specifically applies
to transfers of funds initiated by electronic means from a consumer’s account held at a financial
institution. It covers transfers “initiated through an electronic terminal, telephonic instrument, or
computer.”93 Its application is limited to deposit accounts “established primarily for personal,
family, or household purposes,”94 “held by a financial institution,”95 with “financial institution”
limited to banks, thrifts, savings associations, and credit unions.96
Federal Tax Law
Digital currencies have characteristics of traditional tax haven jurisdictions: earnings are not
reported to the IRS and users are provided some level of anonymity. Unlike traditional tax
havens, however, digital currencies are able to operate without involving a financial institution.97
90 For further exposition of the genesis, legislative history, and analysis of the Stamp Payments Act, including the
possibility that it may apply to electronic currency, see Thomas P. Vartanian, Robert H. Ledig, and Yolanda
Demianczuk, Echoes of the Past with Implications for the Future: The Stamp Payments Act of 1862 and Electronic
Commerce, 67 BNA’s Banking Report (September 23, 1996).
91 Virtual currencies, such as Linden Dollars, are not likely to conflict with this statute because they do not appear to
“circulate as money or be received in lieu of lawful money,” within the meaning of the statute. They circulate only in a
limited environment and are redeemable only in virtual goods, and, thus, are similar to the tokens and tickets
redeemable in goods and services on a limited basis that courts have found not to have been issued in violation of the
Stamp Payments Act. United States v. Monongahela Bridge Co., 26 F. Cas. 1292 (W.D. Pa. 1863) (No. 15796); United
States v. Roussopulous, 95 F. 977 (D. Minn. 1899).
92 See Vartanian et al., supra, n. 8, and Reuben Grinberg, “Bitcoin: An Innovative Digital Currency,” 5 Hastings
Science & Technology Law Journal 159 (2012).
93 15 U.S.C. §1693a(6).
94 15 U.S.C. §1693a(2).
95 15 U.S.C. §1693a(2).
96 15 U.S.C. §1693a(11).
97 For further information, see Marian, Omri, “Are Cryptocurrencies Super Tax Havens?,” 112 Michigan Law Review
First Impressions 38 (2013).
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Until March 2014, the IRS provided limited guidance on the tax consequences of activities
involving the virtual world. It cautioned:
[i]n general, you can receive income in the form of money, property, or services. If you
receive more income from the virtual world than you spend, you may be required to
report the gain as taxable income. IRS guidance also applies when you spend more in a
virtual world than you receive, you generally cannot claim a loss on an income tax
return.98
The guidance was limited and did not appear to target a digital currency such as Bitcoin that is
used as a medium of exchange for goods and services in the real world. A GAO report in 2013
had found inadequate IRS efforts to address tax implications of virtual currencies not used within
a virtual economy.99 GAO recommended that IRS take a step to counter misinformation
circulating about virtual currencies in view of the possibility for growth in such currencies.
Rather than recommending a costly rigorous compliance approach, GAO recommended that IRS
“find relatively low-cost ways to provide information to taxpayers, such as the web statement IRS
developed on virtual economies, on the basic tax reporting requirements for transactions using
virtual currencies developed and used outside virtual economies.”100
It appears that the IRS heeded the GAO recommendation. On March 25, 2014, the IRS posted on
its website a notice, IRS Virtual Currency Guidance: Virtual Currency is Treated as Property for
U.S. Federal Tax Purposes; General Rules for Property Transactions Apply.101 The guidance
advises U.S. taxpayers that virtual currency is treated as property for federal tax purposes and
provides answers to 16 Frequently Asked Questions.102 It advises taxpayers on a range of matters
such as when to include the fair market value of virtual currency in computing gross income; how
to determine the fair market value of virtual currency; and whether payments made using virtual
currency are subject to backup withholding. According to the IRS, some of the general
implications of the requirement that virtual currency be treated as property for federal tax
purposes are
Wages paid to employees using virtual currency are taxable to the employee, must be
reported by an employer on a Form W-2, and are subject to federal income tax
withholding and payroll taxes.
Payments using virtual currency made to independent contractors and other service
providers are taxable and self-employment tax rules generally apply. Normally, payers
must issue Form 1099.
The character of gain or loss from the sale or exchange of virtual currency depends on
whether the virtual currency is a capital asset in the hands of the taxpayer.
98 Internal Revenue Service, “Tax Consequences of Virtual World Transactions,” http://www.irs.gov/Businesses/Small-
Businesses-&-Self-Employed/Tax-Consequences-of-Virtual-World-Transactions.
99 U.S. Government Accountability Office, “Virtual Economies and Currencies: Additional IRS Guidance Could
Reduce Tax Compliance Risk,” GAO-13-516, May 15, 2013.
100 Ibid.
101 IRS Notice 2014-36 (March 25, 2014), “IRS Virtual Currency Guidance: Virtual Currency Is Treated as Property
for U.S. Federal Tax Purposes; General Rules for Property Transactions Apply,” http://www.irs.gov/uac/Newsroom/
News-Releases-for-March-2014. (Hereinafter, IRS Notice 2014-36.)
102 IRS Notice 2014-21, at http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=2&ved=
0CCcQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.irs.gov%2Fpub%2Firs-drop%2Fn-14-
21.pdf%3Futm_source%3D3.31.2014%2BTax%2BAlert%26utm_campaign%3D3.31.14%2BTax%2BAlert%26utm_m
edium%3Demail&ei=SV-9U8rNNq_fsAS53oKIAw&usg=AFQjCNGA0SLTV8u_FVS4mR2drXjThS1BHg&bvm=
bv.70138588,d.cWc.
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A payment made using virtual currency is subject to information reporting to the same
extent as any other payment made in property.103
Federal Anti-Money Laundering Laws
Under the criminal anti-money laundering laws,104 engaging in financial transactions that involve
proceeds of illegal or terrorist activities or that are designed to finance such activities is
prohibited. Money laundering crimes generally involve transactions processed by financial
institutions, which is why the Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) imposes various recordkeeping
requirements on banks and other financial institutions.105 Under the Currency and Foreign
Transaction Reporting Act106 component of the BSA, financial institutions must file reports of
cash transactions exceeding amounts set by the Secretary of the Treasury in regulations, and file
suspicious activity reports (SARs) for transactions meeting a certain monetary threshold or
intended to evade reporting requirements. Financial institutions, as required by the Secretary of
the Treasury, must also develop and follow anti-money laundering programs and customer
identification programs. All of these requirements apply to money services businesses (MSBs), a
category of financial institution that must register with the Department of the Treasury.107 MSBs
include a variety of businesses, including dealers in foreign exchange, check cashers, traveler’s
check issuers, providers of prepaid access cards, and money transmitters.108 These entities must
register with the Department of the Treasury and comply with BSA requirements.
Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FINCEN) Actions
FINCEN Guidance
On March 18, 2013, Treasury’s Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FINCEN) issued
interpretative guidance109 requiring Bitcoin exchanges—individuals and businesses that change
Bitcoins into U.S. or foreign currency—to register as MSBs pursuant to the BSA. Subsequently,
FINCEN issued rulings indicating that (1) individuals or companies that mine Bitcoins, use them,
and convert them into real currency for their own use are not exchanges and do not have to
register as MSBs110 and (2) companies investing in Bitcoins exclusively for their own account are
not exchanges and do not have to register as MSBs.111
103 IRS Notice 2014-36.
104 18 U.S.C. §§1956 and 1957.
105 Titles I and II of P.L. 91-508, including 12 U.S.C. §§1829b, and 1951-1959; 31 U.S.C. §§5311 et seq.
106 31 U.S.C. §§5311 et seq.
107 Bank Secrecy Act requirements for money services businesses are listed on the Financial Crimes Enforcement
Network’s website at http://www.fincen.gov/financial_institutions/msb/msbrequirements.html.
108 31 C.F.R. §1010.100(ff).
109 U.S. Department of the Treasury, Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, “Application of FinCEN’s Regulations to
Persons Administering, Exchanging, or Using Virtual Currencies,” (March 18, 2013), http://www.fincen.gov/
statutes_regs/guidance/html/FIN-2013-G001.html.
110 FIN-2014-R001, “Application of FinCEN’s Regulations to Virtual Currency Mining Operations” (January 30,
2014), http://www.fincen.gov/news_room/rp/rulings/html/FIN-2014-R001.html.
111 FIN-2014-R002, “Application of FinCEN’s Regulations to Virtual Currency Software Development and Certain
Investment Activity” (January 30, 2014), http://www.fincen.gov/news_room/rp/rulings/html/FIN-2014-R002.html.
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FINCEN Administrative Rulings
On October 27, 2014, FINCEN released two administrative rulings denying exemptions from
MSB regulations for two companies involved in virtual currency activities.112 One ruling applied
to a business proposing to act as an intermediary between credit card holders and hotels dealing
only in Bitcoins; the other proposed to set up a trading platform to match offers to buy and sell
virtual currency for legal tender. In both cases, FINCEN ruled that the companies qualified as
money transmitters under the MSB regulations and did not meet the criteria for exemption as
payment processors.
Specifically, FINCEN ruled that a company that sets up a payment system to facilitate payments
between U.S. credit card holders and certain businesses that deal only in virtual currencies
qualifies as a MSB and must register and be subject to regulation as such. In the first ruling, the
business in question was proposing to offer U.S. credit card holders a means of paying for
reservations in certain Latin American hotels that operate solely on the basis of Bitcoins and do
not accept credit card payments or payments in dollars or other sovereign currencies. According
to the information provided to FINCEN, the company would supply the hotels with software
through which credit card charges would be directed to the company rather than to the hotel. The
company would then pay the hotel in Bitcoins, after deducting a fee, using Bitcoins that it had
purchased from Bitcoin exchanges at wholesale. The company would charge the credit card
holders the dollar equivalent of the hotel charges and bear the risk of exchange rate fluctuation
between the time of the credit card charge and payment to the hotel. The company argued that it
did not meet FINCEN’s definition of virtual currency exchanger and that it was acting as a
payment processor and not a money transmitter. FINCEN ruled that the proposed activities fall
squarely within the regulatory definition of money transmission services113 and, because the
business does not operate through a clearing and settlement system involving only businesses
regulated under the BSA, the company does not qualify for an exception as a payment
processor.114
In the second ruling, FINCEN determined on October 27, 2014, that a company proposing to set
up a virtual currency trading platform would be required to register as an MSB. Under the
proposal, customers would deposit U.S. dollars and virtual currency in accounts that would be
maintained separately in their names and could be used to execute orders to the company to buy
or sell the currency at a given price. Orders would be executed automatically through the
platform, which would attempt to match buy and sell orders from among the customers
maintaining accounts with the company. If no match was found at the given price, no transaction
would be executed. The company argued for an exemption from the MSB regulations on the
grounds that its operations were similar to those of commodities or securities exchanges and that
it was not transmitting money to counterparties. FINCEN characterized these arguments as
irrelevant. Instead, FINCEN looked to the regulatory definition of money transmitter and found it
to cover the company’s activities. According to FINCEN, “in each trade conducted through the
112FIN-2014-R011, “Request for Administrative Ruling on the Application of FinCEN’s Regulations to a Virtual
Currency Trading Platform, and FIN-2014-R012, “Application for Administrative Ruling on the Application of
FinCEN’s Regulation to a Virtual Currency Payment System,” http://www.fincen.gov/statutes_regs/rulings/.
(Hereinafter FIN 2014-R2011 or FIN-2014-R012.)
113 “The term money transmission services means the acceptance of currency, funds, or other value that substitutes for
currency from one person and the transmission of currency, funds, or other value that substitutes for currency to
another location or person by any means.” 31 C.F.R. §1010.100(ff).
114 31 C.F.R. §1010.100(ff)(5)(ii)(B) and FIN-2013-R2002, “Whether a Company That Offers a Payment Mechanism
Based on Payable-Through Drafts to Its Commercial Customers Is a Money Transmitter (November 13, 2013).
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Platform, two money transmission transactions occur: one between the Company and the
Customer wishing to buy virtual currency, and another between the Company and the Customer
wishing to sell such virtual currency at the same exchange rate.”115
FINCEN-Department of Justice Enforcement Action
On May 5, 2015, FINCEN brought its first enforcement116 action against a virtual currency
exchange, Ripple Labs, Inc. (Ripple), which sells XRP (“ripples”), a virtual currency with market
capitalization second to that of Bitcoins. The charges against Ripple, by both FINCEN and the
U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of California, involve failure to register as a money
services business and to maintain an adequate anti-money laundering program. The DOJ had
investigated Ripple for operating an unlicensed money services business in violation of a federal
criminal statute.117 Under an agreement reached with FINCEN and DOJ, Ripple is subject to a
total penalty of $700,000, $450,000 of which is to be forfeited to DOJ and the remainder paid to
the U.S. Treasury. In addition, Ripple has agreed to take certain remedial measures. Under the
settlement agreement, DOJ will not prosecute Ripple for any of the conduct detailed in a
Statement of Facts and Violations, and Ripple has agreed to continue to cooperate with DOJ in
related Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) investigations of the conduct of Ripple “and its officers,
directors, employees, agents, and consultants.” Ripple has also agreed to take certain remedial
steps, including continuing to implement and improve its BSA compliance program and to move
one of its organizational components to a money services business registered with FINCEN. That
component functions in such a way that its “end users” are able “to interact with the Ripple
protocol to view and manage their XRP and fiat currency balances.”
Federal Election Campaign Act
In what the Washington Post characterized as “one of the first rulings by a government agency on
how to treat the virtual currency,”118 the Federal Election Commission (FEC) voted unanimously
to permit a nonconnected political committee to accept Bitcoin contributions and to purchase
Bitcoins as an investment. The FEC released an Advisory Opinion119 on May 13, 2014, that
focuses on the specifics of the particular request that the FEC was approving. Whether the ruling
will be limited with respect to (1) the amounts that may be received from each contributor per
election and (2) the screening procedures specified in the request approved by the FEC appears to
be uncertain. The request came from Make Your Laws PAC, Inc. (MYL), a nonconnected
political action committee (PAC) registered with the FEC. MYL sought and received permission
to accept Bitcoins of up to $100 per contributor per election. MYL proposed to obtain online the
contributor’s name, address, occupation and employer, as well as an affirmation that the donor is
not a foreign national and is the owner of the Bitcoins. These screening procedures satisfied the
FEC as adequate with respect to MYL’s obligation to examine contributions and determine
eligibility of contributors. MYL also received permission to buy Bitcoins and to hold Bitcoins for
115 FIN-2014-R1011, at 3.
116 Financial Crimes Enforcement Network, “FinCEN FinesRiple Labs Inc. in First Civil Enforcment Action Against a
Virtual Exchanger,” May 5, 2015, http://www.fincen.gov/news_room/nr/html/20150505.html.
117 18 U.S.C. § 1960(b)(1)(B).
118 Matea Gold, “Federal Election Commission Approves Bitcoin Donations to Political Committees,” Washington
Post, May 8, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/post-politics/wp/2014/05/08/federal-election-commission-
approves-bitcoin-donations-to-political-committees/.
119 FEC AO 2014-02 “Political Committee May Accept Bitcoins as Contributions,” http://www.fec.gov/pages/
fecrecord/2014/june/ao2014-02.shtml.
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sale. Permission was refused with respect to using Bitcoins to pay expenses. Under the ruling the
Bitcoins are to be treated as contributions of “anything of value,”120 as authorized under the
Federal Election Campaign Act.121 They may be held in MYL’s Bitcoin wallet until liquidated,
when they are to be deposited in a campaign depository.
Federal Trade Commission Act
The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) Act122 prohibits “unfair or deceptive acts or practices in or
affecting commerce”123 and authorizes the FTC to enforce those prohibitions. On September 15,
2014, the FTC brought a civil action under the FTC Act against Butterfly Lab, a Wyoming
corporation with Kansas and Missouri offices. The suit was filed in the U.S. District Court for the
Western District of Missouri. It charged Butterfly Lab with engaging in deceptive practices in
violation of Section 5(a) of the FTC Act.124 The complaint alleged that Butterfly misled
consumers who prepaid for Bitcoin mining machines and services that the company sold on the
Internet. According to the allegations, encryption machines and services that Butterfly sold from
its website and through Facebook and Twitter were either not delivered as promised or, if
delivered, failed to produce Bitcoins profitably, as advertised. Without hearing from the
defendant, the court, on September 18, 2014, issued a temporary order freezing Butterfly’s assets,
appointing a receiver, and granting the FTC immediate access to the company’s premises and
records.125
The FTC’s allegation charges Butterfly with receiving upfront payments amounting to thousands
of dollars from consumers who responded to false and misleading advertisements claiming that
the machines would conduct complex computations at high speed, using low electrical power.
According to the complaint,126 buyers of these machines were misled by assertions that the
machines would solve the mathematical puzzles involved in mining Bitcoins and that buyers of
the Butterfly machines or services would receive Bitcoins as rewards for solving these puzzles at
a rate to make up for the cost of the initial outlay and, in short order, show a profit. Instead, some
of the machines promised were never delivered; others were not delivered as promised or were
defective when delivered. The result, according to the FTC, was that consumers could not
produce Bitcoins, the company was unjustly enriched, and the court’s intervention was required
to stop a continuing substantial injury to consumers. The court found that the FTC had offered
sufficient evidence for the court to conclude that Butterfly had likely violated and would continue
to violate the FTC Act. The court further concluded that consumers would likely suffer
“immediate and continuing harm” unless the court stopped the Butterfly operation. Because the
court found that irreparable damage to consumers was likely if the defendant were notified of the
case and able to transfer assets, the court found that there was good cause to appoint a receiver
and to allow the FTC immediate access to the company and its records to, among other things,
identify its assets.
120 2 U.S.C. §431(8)(A)(i); 11 C.F.R. §§100.52(a) and 100.52(d)(1).
121 2 U.S.C. §431 et seq.
122 15 U.S.C. §§41-58.
123 15 U.S.C. §45.
124 15 U.S.C. §45(a).
125 Federal Trade Commission v. BF Labs, Inc., no. 4:14-cv-00815-BCW (W.D. Mo. filed Sept. 18, 2014).
http://www.ftc.gov/enforcement/cases-proceedings/1423058/bf-labs-inc.
126 A Federal Trade Commission webpage contains a link to the complaint, at http://www.ftc.gov/enforcement/cases-
proceedings/1423058/bf-labs-inc.
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Federal Securities Regulation
Securities regulation focuses on two different legal issues involving Bitcoins—investments
purchased with Bitcoins and investing in Bitcoins. The SEC has been active in investigating
issues related to Bitcoins and has published an investor alert on Bitcoin and other virtual
currency-related investments.
Investments Purchased with Bitcoins
The United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas held in August 2013 that it had
subject matter jurisdiction over possible fraud in investments purchased with Bitcoins because of
its determination that investments purchased with Bitcoins are securities.127 The Securities and
Exchange Commission (SEC) alleged that the defendant had violated provisions of the Securities
Act of 1933128 and the Securities Exchange Act of 1934129 and had conducted a kind of Ponzi
scheme. According to the facts stated by the SEC, the defendant, Trendon T. Shavers, who was
the founder and operator of Bitcoin Savings and Trust (BTCST), had “made a number of
solicitations aimed at enticing lenders to invest in Bitcoin-related investment opportunities.”
Shavers had advertised that he sold Bitcoins and that he would pay an investor up to 1% interest
daily until the investor withdrew the funds or until BTCST could no longer be profitable.
Investors lost a considerable amount of money, and the SEC brought suit. Shavers defended that
the BTCST investments were not securities under federal securities laws because Bitcoins are not
money and are not regulated by the United States. Shavers seemed also to argue that, because the
investments were not securities, the court had no jurisdiction over a lawsuit alleging violations of
the federal securities laws. The SEC argued that the BTCST investments were investment
contracts, thus bringing them within the definition of “securities” and therefore subject to
regulation by the SEC.
The court held that it did have jurisdiction over the case because of its determination that
investments purchased with Bitcoins are securities. 15 U.S.C. Section 77b defines a “security” in
a very broad way as “any note, stock, treasury stock, security future, security-based swap, bond ...
[or] investment contract.” Cases such as SEC v. W.J. Howey & Co130 and Long v. Schultz Cattle
Co.131 have set out a kind of template for an investment contract: An investment contract involves
(1) an investment of money (2) in a common enterprise (3) with the expectation of profits from
the efforts of a promoter or a third party. Thus, according to the court, it had to determine whether
the BTCST investments were an investment of money. The court found that, because Bitcoins can
be used to purchase goods or services and even used to pay for individual living expenses, they
are a “currency or form of money” and that “investors wishing to invest in BTCST provided an
investment of money.” The court also found that there was a common enterprise because the
investors were dependent upon Shavers’s expertise in Bitcoin markets and that Shavers promised
a significant return on their investments. Finally, the Eastern District of Texas found that the third
prong of the investment contract template was met because the BTCST investors had an
expectation of deriving profits from their investments. Because it found that the BTCST
127 Securities and Exchange Commission v. Shavers, No. 4:13-CV-416 (E.D. Tex. August 6, 2013).
128 15 U.S.C. §§77a et seq.
129 15 U.S.C. §§78a et seq.
130 328 U.S. 293 (1946).
131 881 F.2d 129 (5th Cir. 1989).
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investments satisfied the investment contract definition, the court held that it had subject matter
jurisdiction over possible fraud in investments purchased with Bitcoins.
On September 21, 2015, Shavers pled guilty to a count of securities fraud in U.S. District Court
for the Southern District of New York.132
Investing in Bitcoins
The SEC is conducting investigations into bitcoin investments. For example, in June 2014, the
SEC charged the co-owner of two Bitcoin-related websites with offering publicly traded
securities without registering them.133 An SEC investigation found that a co-owner of the
websites published prospectuses on the Internet and solicited investors to buy shares in
SatoshiDICE and FeedZeBirds. However, the co-owner had not registered the offerings with the
SEC. Investors paid for their shares with Bitcoins. The charges were settled, with disgorgement of
the profits plus a penalty. Andrew J. Ceresney, director of the SEC’s Division of Enforcement,
stated,
All issuers selling securities to the public must comply with the registration provisions of
the securities laws, including issuers who seek to raise funds using Bitcoin. We will
continue to focus on enforcing our rules and regulations as they apply to digital
currencies.134
The SEC is considering an application filed by Cameron and Tyler Winkelvoss to form a public
exchange-traded fund (ETF) for Bitcoins.135 According to the filings, the ETF will be traded on
the NASDAQ OMX under the symbol “COIN.” The SEC’s website states that an ETF is often
registered as an open-end investment company or unit investment trust under the Investment
Company Act of 1940. The regulatory requirements for ETFs include the following:
As investment companies, ETFs are subject to the regulatory requirements of the federal
securities laws as well as certain exemptions that are necessary for ETFs to operate under
those laws. Together, the federal securities laws and the relevant exemptions apply
requirements that are designed to protect investors from various risks and conflicts
associated with investing in ETFs.
For example, ETFs, like mutual funds, are subject to statutory limitations on their use of
leverage and transactions with affiliates. ETFs also are subject to specific reporting
requirements and disclosure obligations relating to investment objectives, risks, expenses,
and other information in their registration statements and periodic reports.
In addition, ETFs are subject to oversight by boards of directors.136
The Winkelvoss brothers have made amendments to their filings, and the SEC appears to be still
reviewing them.
In April 2015, Overstock.com, an online retailer headquartered near Salt Lake City, filed a
registration statement with the SEC to register $500 million worth of equity in Overstock as the
first digital stock.137 The SEC is reviewing the application.
132 See http://www.justice.gov/usao-sdny/pr/texas-man-pleads-guilty-manhattan-federal-court-operating-bitcoin-ponzi-
scheme.
133 See http://www.sec.gov/News/PressRelease/Detail/PressRelease/1370541972520#.U7r1cii816Y.
134 Ibid.
135 See http://www.coindesk.com/winklevoss-bitcoin-etf-trade-nasdaq-coin-symbol.
136 See http://www.sec.gov/investor/alerts/etfs.pdf.
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Securities Investor Alerts
In May 2014, the SEC’s Office of Investor Education and Advocacy issued an investor alert to
attempt to make investors aware about the potential risks of investments involving Bitcoin and
other forms of virtual currency.138 In the alert, the SEC expressed concern that Bitcoin and other
virtual and digital currencies, as new products or technologies, have the potential to create fraud
and high-risk investment opportunities.
Potential investors can be easily enticed with the promise of high returns in a new
investment space and also may be less skeptical when assessing something novel, new
and cutting-edge.139
The North American Securities Administrators Association, an international investor protection
organization, has included digital currency on its list of major threats to investors.140
Selected SEC Sanctions
In December 2014, the SEC issued a release141 in which it announced that it was imposing
sanctions on a computer programmer, Ethan Burnside, for his online operation of two venues that
traded securities using the virtual currencies Bitcoin and Litecoin. According to the SEC, the
sanctions were necessary because Burnside had never registered the venues as stock exchanges or
broker-dealers. In addition, the SEC sanctioned Burnside for conducting unregistered offerings.
The SEC order142 indicates that Burnside cooperated in the agency’s investigation and agreed to
disgorge $68,000, made up of profits, interest, and penalties, and to a bar from participating in the
securities industry.
In the view of the SEC, Burnside’s not registering the virtual currency venues violated several
statutes. Because of the enlistment of securities issuers to offer investments for purchase or sale to
the public, the non-registration is a violation of Section 6 of the Securities Exchange Act.143 This
statute requires that “[a]n exchange shall not be registered as a national securities exchange unless
the Commission determines that” various requirements assuring investor protection and other
criteria are met. Despite making solicitations to the public to open accounts and trade securities,
Burnside did not register the venues as broker-dealers, apparently a violation of Section
202(a)(11) of the Investment Advisers Act.144 The SEC’s order found that Burnside violated other
provisions of the federal securities laws, such as Sections 5(a) and 5(c) of the Securities Act,145
concerning requirements related to securities trading in interstate commerce, and Sections 5146
(...continued)
137 See http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1130713/000104746915003890/a2224281zs-3.htm.
138 See http://www.sec.gov/oiea/investor-alerts-bulletins/investoralertsia_bitcoin.html#.U7sE_Ci816Y.
139 Ibid.
140 See http://www.nasaa.org/3752/top-investor-threats.
141 See http://www.sec.gov/News/PressRelease/Detail/PressRelease/1370543655716#.VKMTKcnivSE.
142 See http://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/2014/33-9685.pdf.
143 15 U.S.C. §78f.
144 15 U.S.C. §80b-2(a)(11).
145 15 U.S.C. §§77e(a) and 77e(c).
146 15 U.S.C. §78e.
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(transactions on unregistered exchanges) and 15147 (registration and regulation of brokers and
dealers) of the Securities Exchange Act.
In its release announcing the sanctions imposed on Burnside, the SEC emphasized the importance
of investor protection in an area that may be new to the investing public. The agency stated that
Burnside operated two online enterprises that weren’t properly registered to engage in the
securities business they were conducting.... The registration rules are vitally important
investor protection provisions, and no exemption applies simply because an entity is
operating on the Internet or using a virtual currency in securities transactions.
In February 2014, the SEC suspended trading of Imogo Mobile Technologies’ securities because
of issues concerning the adequacy and accuracy of its public disclosures.148 Before the
suspension, Imogo announced that it was in the process of developing a mobile Bitcoin platform.
This announcement created increased movement in the trading price of Imogo’s securities.
In the Matter of Sand Hill Exchange, Gerritt Hall, and Elaine Ou, although not primarily focused
on Bitcoin, did have a Bitcoin component. 149 In June 2015, the SEC issued a settled cease and
desist order against this website operator and its two principals who claimed to offer an
opportunity to anyone to make profits based on the performance of companies that were not yet
publicly traded. The major issue concerned the website’s sale of complex financial instruments to
persons who were not eligible to purchase them. The principals of the website tried to find people
to fund its accounts with either dollars or Bitcoins, perhaps adding to the complexity and
uncertainty of the investments.
Texas State Action
In March 2014, the Texas State Securities Board (Board) entered an emergency cease and desist
order against a Texas oil and gas exploration company, Balanced Energy LLC, that claimed to be
the first company in the industry to accept Bitcoin from investors.150 According to the Board,
Balanced Energy failed to disclose to its investors that there are risks involved in using Bitcoin
for investments and that the company was in violation of the Texas securities laws for not
disclosing these risks to investors.
Commodity Futures Trading Commission Regulation
The Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) has authority to regulate commodities
futures, their markets, and certain foreign exchange instruments. On September 17, 2015, the
CFTC issued an order against an online platform for facilitating the trading of Bitcoin options
contracts.151
In March 2014, the Derivabit platform became available as a risk management platform enabling
transactions in Bitcoin options and futures contracts. Although the strike and delivery prices were
in U.S. dollars, the premiums and settlement payments were in Bitcoins. The CFTC charged
Coinflip, which was the operator of the Derivabit platform, and Francisco Riordan, the CEO of
Coinflip (respondents), with violating certain provisions of the Commodity Exchange Act (CEA),
147 15 U.S.C. §78o.
148 See http://www.sec.gov/litigation/suspensions/2014/34-71568.pdf.
149 SEC Administrative Proceeding File No. 3-16598 (June 17, 2015).
150 See http://www.ssb.state.tx.us/Enforcement/files/1731.pdf.
151 In the Matter of Coinflip, Inc. and Francisco Riordan, CFTC Docket No. 15-29 (Sept. 17, 2015).
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such as the prohibitions on trading unregulated options152 and on unregistered swap execution
facilities.153 The respondents consented to the CFTC’s order without admitting or denying the
charges.
In the order, the CFTC set out holdings and findings that establish its position on the regulatory
characterization of Bitcoin. Amo these holdings and findings are the following: (1) In note 2 of
the order, the CFTC stated that Bitcoin is a virtual currency and defined virtual currency as a
“digital representation of value that functions as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, and/or
a store of value, but does not have legal tender status in any jurisdiction;” (2) The CFTC went on
in the note to distinguish virtual currencies from “real” currencies, which it stated are the “coin
and paper money of the United States or another country that are designated as legal tender,
circulate, and are customarily used and accepted as a medium of exchange in the country of
issuance;” and, perhaps most importantly, (3) The CFTC quoted the definition of commodity from
Section 1a(9) of the CEA154 and noted that, because the definition is very broad, “Bitcoin and
other virtual currencies are encompassed in the definition and properly defined as
commodities.”155
There may also be the possibility that the CFTC could include such a digital currency within its
foreign exchange regulations because the CEA does not define foreign currency or foreign
exchange, although it covers and defines foreign-exchange forwards and foreign-exchange
swaps.156
International Legal Issues
European Central Bank Study
The United States is not the only nation taking an interest in the potential impact of increased use
of Bitcoin.157 Because digital currency knows no national boundaries, it may require an
international solution and, thus, has drawn the attention of international regulators. Traditional
payment systems are based on statutory-based monetary systems, overseen by central banks that
process transactions of depository banks and other authorized or chartered financial institutions.
With virtual currencies, however, no laws and regulations define the duties and obligations of
parties or provide for finality of settlement, resolution of disputes, or supervision of services
152 7 U.S.C. § 6c(b).
153 7 U.S.C. § 7b-3(a)(1).
154 7 U.S.C. §1a(9). It reads:
The term commodity means wheat, cotton, rice, corn, oats, barley, rye, flaxseed, grain sorghums, mill feeds, butter,
eggs, Solanum tuberosum (Irish potatoes), wool, wool tops, fats and oils (including lard, tallow, cottonseed oil, peanut
oil, soybean oil, and all other fats and oils), cottonseed meal, cottonseed, peanuts, soybeans, soybean meal, livestock,
livestock products, and frozen concentrated orange juice, and all other goods and articles, except onions (as provided
by section 13–1 of this title) and motion picture box office receipts (or any index, measure, value, or data related to
such receipts), and all services, rights, and interests (except motion picture box office receipts, or any index, measure,
value or data related to such receipts) in which contracts for future delivery are presently or in the future dealt in.
155 In the Matter of Coinflip, Inc. and Francisco Riordan, CFTC Docket No. 15-29, at 3.
156 7 U.S.C. §§1a(24) and (25).
157 A report by the Law Library of Congress “surveys forty foreign jurisdictions and the European Union, reporting on
any regulations or statements from central banks or government offices on the handling of bitcoins as well as any
significant use of bitcoins in business transactions.” See Law Library of Congress, Global Legal Research Center,
Regulation of Bitcoin in Selected Jurisdictions, January 2014, at http://www.loc.gov/law/help/bitcoin-survey/
regulation-of-bitcoin.pdf.
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provided. An October 2012 study of digital currencies by the European Central Bank is premised
on the possibility that growth of digital currencies will carry with it a need for international
cooperation in developing a regulatory framework.158 According to the study, the current level of
virtual currencies poses little risk to price stability; there are, however, risks to users and a
potential for criminal schemes.159 The study also notes that neither the European Monetary
Directive nor the European Payment Services Directive clearly applies to virtual currencies such
as Bitcoin.160
Financial Action Task Force 2014 Guidance and 2015 Report
The Financial Action Task Force, an inter-governmental organization of which the United States
is a member, released a report assessing the risks that virtual currencies present to global efforts
to combat money laundering and financing of terrorists in June 2014161 and “Guidance for a Risk-
Based Approach to Virtual Currencies” (FATF Guidance) in June 2015.162 The 2014 report
provides a glossary of key definitions, such as digital currency, virtual currency, convertible (or
open) currency, and non-convertible (or closed) currency. It includes sections on legitimate uses
of virtual currency and potential risks of virtual currency. It summarizes three law enforcement
actions involving virtual currency, all spearheaded by the U.S. Department of Justice.163
The 2015 FATF Guidance is aimed at explaining how FATF’s risk-based approach to standards
for anti-money laundering and anti-terrorist financing apply to exchanges of virtual currencies
that can be converted into fiat money. The goal is to aid national authorities seeking to develop
regulatory regimes. The FATF Guidance recommends specific standards for countries to take a
risk-based approach to identify and mitigate money laundering and terrorist financing risks
implicated in virtual currency activities. It includes summaries of approaches taken in certain
jurisdictions—Canada, China, the European Banking Authority, France, Germany, Hong Kong,
Italy, Russia, Singapore, South Africa, Switzerland, United Kingdom, and the United States.164
158 European Central Bank, “Virtual Currency Schemes,” October 2012, http://www.ecb.europa.eu/pub/pdf/other/
virtualcurrencyschemes201210en.pdf. (Hereinafter, European Central Bank Report.)
159 Ibid.
160 European Central Bank Report, p. 43. The report noted that there are attempts in some of the countries belonging to
the European Union to develop a means of regulating such currencies. Apparently courts in France are looking into
whether Bitcoin transactions are subject to electronic money regulations. See Finextra.http://www.finextra.com/news/
fullstory.aspx?newsitemid=22921.
161 Financial Action Task Force, “Virtual Currencies: Key Definitions and Potential AML/CFT Risks,” June 2014,
http://www.fatf-gafi.org/topics/methodsandtrends/documents/virtual-currency-definitions-aml-cft-risk.html.
(Hereinafter, FATF Report.)
162 Financial Action Task Force, “Guidance for A Risk-Based Approach [to] Virtual Currencies,” June 2015,
https://www.google.com/search?q=Guidance+for+a+Risk-Based+Approach+virtual+Currencies&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8.
(Hereinafter FATF Guidance.)
163 The three law enforcement actions are (1) the prosecution of Liberty Reserve by the Department of Justice (DOJ)
and its designation by the U.S. Department of the Treasury as a financial institution of primary money laundering
concern, cutting it off from the U.S. banking system; (2) the DOJ’s indictment of the owner of Silk Road and seizure of
its website and more than 600,000 Bitcoins resulting from its sale of drugs and other illegal operations; and (3) the DOJ
and Manhattan District Attorney’s investigation and indictment of felons associated with Western Express
International’s “global identity theft/cyberfraud scheme.” FATF Report, at 10-12/. The U.S. Marshals Service has
conducted two auctions of Bitcoins seized in connection with the Silk Road prosecution and is expected to sell the
remainder. See Sydney Ember, “At an Auction of Bitcoins Seized From Silk Road, One Exchange Wins Big,” New
York Times Dealbook, December 10, 2014, p. B3.
164 FATF Guidance, at p. 115-22.
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On July 4, 2014, the European Banking Authority (EBA),165 the European Union authority
charged with monitoring financial activities and making recommendations for regulating banking
concerns for safety and soundness purposes, released recommendations for steps to address the
problems associated with the rise of virtual currencies, “EBA Opinion on ‘virtual currencies.”166
In this document, the EBA identified 70 risks167 associated with virtual currency, multiple
difficulties168 of crafting a regulatory regime addressing those risks, and some interim measures
for the member states of the European Union to institute. As interim measures, the EBA
recommended (1) subjecting virtual currency exchanges to the anti-money laundering and
counter-terrorist financing requirements and (2) discouraging credit institutions, payment
institutions, and e-money institutions from buying, holding, or selling virtual currencies.169
Concern About International Monetary Fund Authority
One issue that has received some attention is the ability of the International Monetary Fund (IMF)
to defend a traditional currency of one of its member countries from a speculative attack
involving a digital currency such as Bitcoin because the IMF’s Articles of Agreement do not
explicitly permit it to acquire a currency not issued by one of its members. At least one
commentary170 examines possible options for amending or reinterpreting the IMF’s authority.
165 The European Banking Authority, established in 2011, is a European Union authority tasked with “creation of a
European Single Rulebook in banking whose objective is to provide the single set of harmonised prudential rules for
financial institutions throughout the EU. The EBA was established on 1 January 2011 as part of the European System
of Financial Supervision (ESFS),” http://www.eba.europa.eu/about-
us;jsessionid=F0A9FFE1AE5B85CF9C57D284FB06BBAC.
166 European Banking Authority. “EBA Opinion on ‘virtual currencies’” (July 4, 2014). Available on European
Banking Authority webpage, under heading “EBA proposes potential regulatory regime for virtual currencies, but also
advises that financial institutions should not buy, hold or sell them whilst no such regime is in place,”
https://www.eba.europa.eu/-/eba-proposes-potential-regulatory-regime-for-virtual-currencies-but-also-advises-that-
financial-institutions-should-not-buy-hold-or-sell-them-whilst-n. (Hereinafter, EBA Opinion.)
167 According to the EBA Opinion, “[t]he risks include the fact that a [virtual currency] ... scheme can be created, and
then its function subsequently changed, by anyone, and in the case of decentralised schemes, such as Bitcoins, by
anyone with a sufficient share of computational power; that payer and payee can remain anonymous; that [virtual
currency] ... schemes do not respect jurisdictional boundaries and may therefore undermine financial sanctions and
seizure of assets; and that market participants lack sound corporate governance arrangements.” EBA Opinion, p. 5.
168 According to the EBA Opinion, “[a] regulatory approach that addresses these drivers comprehensively would
require a substantial body of regulation, some components of which are untested. It would need to comprise, amongst
other elements, governance requirements for several market participants, the segregation of client accounts, capital
requirements and, crucially, the creation of ‘scheme governing authorities’ that are accountable for the integrity of a ..
[virtual currency] scheme and its key components, including its protocol and transaction ledge.” EBA Opinion, p. 5.
169 EBA Opinion, p. 6.
170 Nicholas Plassarus, “Regulating Digital Currencies: Bringing Bitcoin within the Reach of the IMF,” 14 Chicago
Journal of International Law 377 (2013), https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2248419.
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Author Contact Information
Edward V. Murphy
Michael V. Seitzinger
Specialist in Financial Economics
Legislative Attorney
tmurphy@crs.loc.gov, 7-6201
mseitzinger@crs.loc.gov, 7-7895
M. Maureen Murphy
Legislative Attorney
mmurphy@crs.loc.gov, 7-6971
Acknowledgments
The economic analysis in this report is the work of Craig K. Elwell, former CRS Specialist in
Macroeconomic Policy. Craig recently retired, and the current authors wish to thank him for his significant
contribution.
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