May 20, 2015
Sudan: an Overview
When unified (1956-2011), Sudan was Africa’s largest
Figure 1. Sudan Key Facts
nation by area, and the site of its longest running civil war.
In 2011, after decades of fighting broadly described as a
conflict between the predominately “Arab” Muslim north
and “African” Christian and animist south, Sudan split in
two. Mistrust between Sudan and South Sudan lingers, and
unresolved disputes still threaten to pull the two countries
back to war. The north-south split did not resolve other
simmering Sudanese conflicts, notably in Darfur, Blue Nile,
and Southern Kordofan. Overlapping struggles between
security forces and armed groups, among ethnic groups, and
between nomadic and farming communities have caused
extensive displacement and human suffering. Across the
country, social tensions, economic pressures, and political
dissent pose ongoing challenges for Sudan’s Islamist
government, which came to power through a coup in 1989.

The secession of South Sudan was a major financial blow to
National Congress Party (NCP) formed a unity government.
Sudan, which lost 75% of its oil production, two-thirds of
Southern Sudanese voted overwhelmingly in January 2011
its export earnings, and more than half its fiscal revenues.
to secede and achieved independence in July of that year.
The cost of waging war on multiple fronts compounds
The CPA failed to resolve several contentious issues, and
Sudan’s economic troubles and, along with allegations of
talks continue on border disputes and related security
political repression, fuels domestic criticism of the
issues, debts, and once-shared resources, such as oil. Sudan
government and periodic protests. Military operations
and South Sudan signed partial deals on security and
against restive regions continue to draw international
economic cooperation in 2012, but the deployment of a
condemnation and have prevented Sudan from improving
joint monitoring mission to ensure the demilitarization of
relations with many countries, including the United States.
the border has been repeatedly delayed.
U.S. sanctions limit Sudan’s access to U.S. dollars and
impede its access to international financial markets and
The proximity of rebel activity in Sudan’s “new south”
institutions. Sudan has taken several conspicuous steps to
complicates border demilitarization, as does the unresolved
repair relations with key Arab Gulf countries, which are
status of contested areas such as the disputed Abyei region.
important sources of investment. Those relations had cooled
Abyei was accorded special semi-autonomous status in the
in recent years amid concern over Sudan’s ties to Iran and
CPA, and it has repeatedly been a flashpoint for violence. A
its perceived support for the Muslim Brotherhood.
referendum for Abyei residents on whether to retain their
special status in Sudan or join South Sudan was slated for
Background
2011 but has been delayed by voter eligibility disputes. The
Northern-led regimes espousing Islamist ideals have
deployment of the U.N. Interim Force for Abyei (UNISFA)
dominated Sudan since independence, often pressing
defused a violent stand-off between Sudan and South Sudan
policies to force distant provinces to conform to the center,
in 2011, but local tensions still have potential to draw the
Khartoum, rather than accommodating local customs and
two Sudans back into conflict. Their armed forces have
institutions. Instead of forging a common national identity,
engaged in minor clashes sporadically since separation, and
these policies exacerbated Sudan’s racial, cultural, and
South Sudan periodically accuses Sudan of air strikes on its
religious differences. Government attempts to Arabize and
territory. Those strikes reportedly target Sudanese rebels
Islamize the countryside were resisted by southerners and
that Khartoum accuses South Sudan of harboring.
other marginalized groups, sparking two related southern
Ongoing Conflicts
insurgencies (1955-1972 and 1983-2005). Groups in other
regions rose up periodically, citing local grievances, and
The CPA did not resolve Sudan’s long-standing center-
some, in the central states of Southern Kordofan and Blue
periphery tensions. Khartoum has continued to respond to
Nile, joined the southern rebellion, the Sudan People’s
the political demands of restive regions more often with
Liberation Movement/Army (SPLM/A).
force than reform, and has financed local Arab militias to
help counter insurgencies. These militias are widely
The north-south war took a heavy toll on both sides. In
criticized for indiscriminate and disproportionate attacks
2005, the government and the SPLM signed the
against civilians. The government also continues aerial
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA), which enshrined
bombings in Darfur, in violation of U.N. Security Council
the south’s right to self-determination after a six year
resolution 1591 (2005), and has been accused of targeting
“interim period,” during which the SPLM and the ruling
hospitals in both Darfur and Southern Kordofan.
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Sudan: an Overview
Darfur. More than a decade after the George W. Bush
The Humanitarian Situation
Administration declared genocide in Darfur in 2004,
More than 6.6 million Sudanese are estimated to need
widespread violence still plagues the region. Fighting in
humanitarian aid in 2015, 4.4 million of them in Darfur.
among communities, armed groups, and the military has
More than 2.5 million Darfuri have been displaced
escalated since early 2013, causing displacement on a scale
internally, and Chad continues to host almost 370,000
not seen since the first years of the conflict. The 2011 Doha
Darfuri refugees. Another 2 million in Southern Kordofan,
Document for Peace in Darfur has not stemmed the
Blue Nile, and Abyei are internally displaced or severely
violence. Insecurity and government restrictions limit
affected by conflict. Ethiopia and South Sudan host over
access by peacekeepers and humanitarian groups to affected
275,000 refugees from the two states. Relief agencies are
communities. Attacks by armed groups against civilians,
also struggling to assist more than 146,000 South Sudanese
peacekeepers, and relief workers are a major problem—
refugees who have fled to Sudan since December 2013.
more than 60 peacekeepers have been killed in Darfur. The
credibility of the African Union-U.N. Hybrid Operation in
U.S. Policy and Foreign Assistance
Darfur (UNAMID) has been questioned amid allegations
that it has self-censored its reporting on crimes against
U.S. relations with Sudan have long been turbulent. The
civilians and peacekeepers, and the mission is under
United States maintains various sanctions against Sudan
pressure from Khartoum to develop an exit strategy.
through Executive Orders and congressionally imposed
legal restrictions, which currently prohibit assistance to the
In 2005, the U.N. Security Council granted the International
government or to modify loans held by Sudan. Khartoum is
Criminal Court (ICC) jurisdiction over serious crimes
also subject to economic sanctions based on debt arrears
committed in Darfur. It was the first case the Council
(since 1988), support for international terrorism (since
referred to the Court. Ten years later, the ICC has yet to
1993), and pervasive human rights violations. Trade
commence a trial, and five ICC arrest warrants remain
sanctions were imposed in 1997. Congress has repeatedly
outstanding, including two for the arrest of President Bashir
tightened sanctions, including in response to abuses in
on charges of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and
Darfur. Khartoum seeks to improve the bilateral
genocide. Sudan’s government remains uncooperative with
relationship, in part to boost its international standing and
the Court, and in December 2014, the ICC Prosecutor
its efforts to reengage with multilateral financial
announced that she was suspending the investigations,
institutions. Sudan seeks relief from almost $45 billion in
expressing frustration with inaction by the Security Council
external sovereign debt, much of it in arrears. Sudan owes
on the outstanding arrest warrants.
over $2 billion to the United States.
Southern Kordofan and Blue Nile. The conflict in these
In the years prior to separation, Sudan ranked among the
states, often referred to as “the Two Areas,” is driven by
top destinations for U.S. foreign aid globally, with more
unresolved grievances that date back to the north-south war,
than $1 billion allocated annually for humanitarian and
when some local groups joined the SPLM’s rebellion
development aid and for peacekeeping support. Since South
against the government. The CPA provided for a process in
Sudan’s independence, development aid for Sudan has been
which the two states might achieve greater autonomy within
limited. The State Department has requested $9.1 million
Sudan, but the process stalled and the conflict reignited in
for FY2016 in non-emergency aid, to support civil society
2011. South Sudan’s ruling party has denied supporting the
and peace and conflict mitigation efforts. Humanitarian aid
insurgency, although the rebels, known as the SPLM-North
has totaled $413 million to date in combined FY2014 and
(SPLM-N) remain linked to the SPLM by their historic
FY2015 funding. The FY2016 request includes $366
relationship. The SPLM-N and the major Darfur rebel
million for UNAMID and $92.5 million for UNISFA.
groups form a loose alliance, the Sudan Revolutionary
Front (SRF). Khartoum has restricted aid agencies’ access
Sudan remains designated as a State Sponsor of Terrorism,
to rebel-held areas since the onset of the conflict, and
although the State Department describes Sudan as “a
bombings by the military and militia attacks exacerbate the
generally cooperative counterterrorism partner” in its
already dire humanitarian situation in these areas.
Country Reports on Terrorism. Hamas maintains a presence
there, per the report, and elements of Al Qaeda-inspired
Political Challenges
terrorist groups remain in the country. Sudan’s purported
role in Iranian arms smuggling to Gaza has also been of
In 2014, President Bashir announced that the government
concern. The State Department has named three Sudanese
would commence a National Dialogue on conflict and
involved in the 2008 murder of two USAID employees as
political issues in the country, in preparation for the
Specially Designated Global Terrorists. Sudan is designated
development of a new constitution. The government is
as a Country of Particular Concern under the International
under domestic pressure for reform—alongside the unrest
Religious Freedom Act. A Christian woman was sentenced
in the periphery, inflation and related economic troubles
to death for apostasy in 2014, drawing international
have fueled periodic protests in urban centers, and
condemnation; her conviction was later overturned and she
protestors have been killed by police on several occasions.
settled in the United States with her family. For more
New rifts within the NCP have emerged as “reformists”
information, see CRS Report R43957, Sudan, by Lauren
have criticized government policies. Press censorship and
Ploch Blanchard.
the detention of political opponents raise questions about
the regime’s commitment to an inclusive dialogue. Major
Lauren Ploch Blanchard, lploch@crs.loc.gov, 7-7640
opposition parties boycotted elections held in April 2015;

President Bashir was reelected with 94% of the vote.
IF10182
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