May 15, 2015
California Drought: Water Supply and Conveyance Issues
Overview
and industrial (M&I) water users. The State Water Project
(SWP) announced a slight increase in water deliveries for
More than 94% of the state of California is experiencing
2015 over 2014, but deliveries remain very low. The SWP
severe drought, with 67% experiencing extreme drought
primarily provides water to M&I users and some
and 47% exceptional drought—the most severe drought
agricultural users. Major CVP and SWP pumps that supply
classification (see Figure 1). Although winter months
water for Central and Southern California are located at the
brought some precipitation, recent snowpack data indicate
southern portion of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers’
that the winter of 2015 was the driest since recordkeeping
Delta confluence with the San Francisco Bay (Bay-Delta).
began in the 1950s. The 2014 water year ended September
Approximately 22 million people receive water from the
30, 2014, and was the third-driest year on record in terms of
Bay-Delta annually.
precipitation. Prior to 2014, precipitation during winter and
spring 2013 was the lowest on record, leaving water storage
What’s at Stake?
reservoirs unusually low. With California now in its fourth
year of drought, water deliveries to districts receiving water
The widespread nature of drought conditions, coupled with
from federal and state facilities have continued to be
low water supplies in the state’s major reservoirs and
curtailed. Some areas have seen wells go dry.
regulatory restrictions on CVP and SWP operations to
protect water quality, fish, and wildlife, have affected many
Following the record-low snow water content survey,
sectors and areas. Many cities and counties have instituted
California Governor Jerry Brown on April 1, 2015,
water rationing, species populations have declined, and a
mandated a 25% reduction in water use for nonagricultural
mandatory 25% cutback in nonagricultural water use has
users. A drought declaration made by the governor on
been put in place. Controversy has ensued over limiting the
January 17, 2014, also remains in effect.
cutback to nonagricultural users; however, the governor has
noted that water supplies already have been curtailed for
Figure 1. California Drought Conditions
some of the largest agricultural users. For example, for
2015 the projected water deliveries for CVP junior water
rights contractors have been cut by 100% (i.e., they will
receive no water from the CVP unless conditions improve).
Senior water rights contractors have had their CVP supplies
reduced by 25%. Similar reductions have occurred for SWP
supplies. Some contractors have pumped groundwater or
purchased water through water transfers or other means to
offset reductions.
Congress funds and oversees the Central Val ey
Project, which in a normal water year delivers, on
average, approximately 7 mil ion acre-feet of water
annual y. CVP 2015 water deliveries are severely
curtailed due to drought and other factors.
Source: U.S. Drought Monitor at http://droughtmonitor.unl.edu/
Although a much smaller percentage of the California
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economy than historically, California agriculture is still the
.
nation’s largest producer in terms of cash farm receipts—
The U.S. Department of Agriculture has announced disaster
accounting for 11% (nearly $45 billion) of the U.S. total in
declarations for most California counties. Such federal
2012, the last year for which data are available (see
declarations make available emergency loans designed to
http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/statistics/). The drought has
partially compensate for losses producers who cannot
affected crop and rangeland conditions and required
obtain commercial credit.
livestock producers to use supplemental hay and grain.
Hundreds of thousands of acres have been fallowed because
Meanwhile, the Bureau of Reclamation (part of the
sufficient water was not available. However, fruit and nut
Department of the Interior) announced cutbacks to Central
orchards continue to need irrigation during drought or the
Valley Project (CVP) water users for 2015. The CVP
trees will die. The effects of drought on California
supplies water to hundreds of thousands of acres throughout
agriculture could have ramifications beyond the state, with
the state, as well as to some wildlife refuges and municipal
reduced supplies and higher product prices for some
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California Drought: Water Supply and Conveyance Issues
commodities—particularly those for which California is the
Regulatory Factors
primary producer (e.g., almonds). For example, California
produces 65% of the nation’s non-citrus fruit and nuts.
Complicating the hydrologic situation is a complex web of
However, where substitutions exist for some crops, prices
federal and state regulatory requirements on CVP and SWP
may not be affected immediately.
operations. These requirements affect how much water is
delivered from the projects. Such requirements include
Availability of other water supplies (e.g., groundwater or
releases of water from reservoirs and limits on pumping
transferred surface water) may help some users adjust to
from the Bay-Delta to protect threatened and endangered
dry conditions, but with most of the state categorized as a
species, as well as water quality. State water rights
drought disaster area it is not certain that other supplies will
priorities and Bureau of Reclamation contracts also affect
remain available. Some areas already are experiencing low
water allocation. Some water users have called for
groundwater levels and subsidence due to increased
modifying regulations; other stakeholders, including some
groundwater pumping. Further, depending on the duration
fishermen and environmental groups, believe such changes
of the drought, groundwater supplies may be limited or
may risk irreversible harm to species. Due to overlapping
become too expensive. California recently enacted a
state and federal restrictions, it is unclear how much water
statewide groundwater law that will increase groundwater
would be available absent such restrictions. Reclamation
planning and monitoring; however, implementation will
estimates that restrictions stemming from the Endangered
take many years.
Species Act (P.L. 93-205) accounted for approximately 2%
of total CVP water reductions in 2014; however, such
In-state hydropower production, recreation, air quality, and
figures are not readily available for regulatory restrictions.
fish and wildlife also may be affected. California hosts
many recreational reservoirs, river-rafting opportunities,
Figure 3. Northern California Snow Water Content
and recreational and commercial fisheries potentially at
(May 13, 2015)
risk, as well as many threatened and endangered species. It
also provides significant habitat along the Pacific Flyway
that is critical to migrating birds. Certain water levels (and
temperatures) are needed in waterways and lakes to
maintain aquatic ecosystems and species viability. Some
salmon runs have experienced a 95% loss of eggs laid, and
recent surveys of Delta Smelt found fewer than five fish.
Current Hydrologic Status
Water levels at California’s largest reservoirs are well
below their historic averages for May.
Source: California Data Exchange Center (http://cdec.water.ca.gov/
Figure 2. Water Levels at Five Largest Reservoirs
cgi-progs/snow/PLOT_SWC).
(May 14, 2015)
Federal Response
Although much drought planning and response happens
locally, the federal government historically has helped
farmers in times of drought. (See CRS Report RS21212,
Agricultural Disaster Assistance.) Additionally, the
Administration in November 2013 announced a National
Drought Resilience Partnership to help prepare for and
reduce drought impacts. However, there is no overarching
federal drought policy or program.
Congress plays a role in CVP water management and has
addressed the drought by facilitating water banking, water
transfers, and new storage. Congress also extended
Source: CRS with data from http://cdec.water.ca.gov/reservoir.html.
authorization for the Emergency Reclamation States
(See Major Reservoirs Daily Graphs–Interactive Water Supply).
Drought Relief Act. Other legislation considered but not
enacted in the 113th Congress (e.g., H.R. 3964, H.R. 5781,
Additionally, as of May 15, 2015, water content in snow in
and S. 2198) would have addressed SWP and CVP drought
the Sierra Nevada Mountains is just 2% of average. (See
operations.
Figure 3.) Snowpack is a major part of water storage for
the state. Runoff from snowpack supplies reservoirs; if
Betsy A. Cody, bcody@crs.loc.gov, 7-7229
there is no snowpack or it has low water content, reservoirs
already low from previous years will not refill.
IF10133
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