May 1, 2015
South Sudan
Figure 1. South Sudan Key Facts
South Sudan emerged in 2011 as the world’s newest country,
and as one of its least developed. After almost 40 years of war
between the Sudan government and southern insurgents, an
overwhelming majority of southern Sudanese voted in January
2011 to secede from Sudan. More than 2.5 million people were
killed in the civil war and more than 4.5 million were
displaced. Many fled as refugees, including to the United
States. South Sudan was devastated by the conflict, which
hindered the development of basic infrastructure and formal
civilian institutions. The war created massive, chronic
humanitarian needs that persisted, despite a bounty of natural
resources, including 75% of Sudan’s former oil reserves.
Reported corruption in the new government slowed post-war
recovery and development. South Sudan was the world’s
largest recipient of humanitarian aid in 2013; its needs since
then have grown.

In December 2013, less than three years after independence,
growing political tensions among key leaders in South Sudan
The fighting has disrupted farming cycles, grazing patterns,
erupted in violence. The political dispute that triggered the
and trade routes, and local markets have collapsed. Of the
crisis was not based on ethnic identity, but it overlapped with
displaced, more than half a million people have fled as
preexisting ethnic and political grievances, sparking armed
refugees to Ethiopia, Sudan, Uganda, and Kenya. The conflict
clashes and targeted ethnic killings in the capital, Juba, and
also affects humanitarian access to over 220,000 Sudanese
then beyond. Ongoing fighting, between forces loyal to South
refugees sheltering in camps in South Sudan.
Sudan President Salva Kiir and forces aligned with his former
U.N. officials assert that targeted attacks against civilians and
vice president, Riek Machar, has caused a security and
U.N. personnel perpetrated during the conflict may constitute
humanitarian emergency, adding to vast preexisting needs and
war crimes or crimes against humanity. The U.N. Mission in
development challenges.
the Republic of South Sudan (UNMISS) reported in May 2014
After the initial outbreak of violence, in which by some
that “from the very outset of the violence, gross violations of
accounts thousands died in targeted ethnic attacks, Riek
human rights and serious violations of humanitarian law have
Machar declared a rebellion against President Kiir, who
occurred on a massive scale. Civilians were not only caught up
accused Machar of plotting a coup. The fighting has continued,
in the violence, they were directly targeted, often along ethnic
despite international pressure to resolve the conflict and
lines.” Both sides have reportedly used child soldiers, and
repeated commitments by the warring parties to observe a
conflict-related sexual violence against civilians is reportedly
January 2014 cessation of hostilities deal.
prevalent. Tens of thousands have been killed, and more than
117,000 have sought refuge at UNMISS peacekeeping bases,
Regional mediators have led negotiations in Ethiopia amid
some of which are located in low-lying areas prone to
ongoing violence, but progress has been limited. In May 2014,
flooding. By numerous accounts, many of those sheltering at
the two sides agreed to the mediators’ proposal for a
the crowded U.N. bases fear that they may be targeted based
transitional government, but they continue to disagree on its
on political or ethnic affiliation if they leave. The U.N. High
composition and responsibilities and have missed multiple
Commissioner for Human Rights has described South
deadlines set by regional leaders to sign a peace deal.
Sudanese efforts to hold perpetrators of serious abuses
Significant questions remain regarding the willingness of
accountable as “few and inadequate.”
either side to compromise and the extent to which other
stakeholders are included in the process. Some observers
Background and Context
express concern that a proposed power-sharing arrangement
may not address the root causes of the conflict.
The current crisis reflects underlying tensions and mistrust
among South Sudanese leaders and ethnic groups that date
Impact of the Conflict
back to Sudan’s civil war, and before. While that war was
described broadly as a north-south conflict, infighting among
More than 2.2 million people have been displaced since
southern rebel commanders in the 1990s nearly derailed the
December 2013. Acute malnutrition levels are rising, and U.N.
southern bid for self-determination, as leaders of the
officials estimate that one-third of the population, 3.5 million
insurgency, the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement/Army
people, will need emergency food aid by June 2015.
(SPLM/SPLA), competed for power and mobilized supporters
along ethnic lines, resulting in atrocities by all sides. Khartoum
fueled SPLM splits by financing and arming breakaway
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South Sudan
factions. The major factions reconciled in the early 2000s,
The humanitarian response has been constrained by funding
although several smaller southern militias continued to operate. shortfalls, access challenges, threats against U.N. and other aid
agency personnel, and ongoing hostilities. The looting of relief
In 2005, the Sudan government and the SPLM signed the
supplies at the onset of the conflict, followed by heavy
Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) to end the war. That
seasonal rains, necessitated the costly distribution of food
deal paved the way for 2010 elections and the southern
supplies by air in 2014. Overland and riverine routes to some
referendum, after which South Sudan, led by the SPLM,
areas have subsequently opened, but threats against aid
seceded in July 2011. The relationship between two Sudans
workers and restrictions on their movement continue to impede
remains tense, and parts of the CPA have yet to be fully
relief deliveries. By some accounts, incidents involving aid
implemented. In 2012, South Sudan’s government, angered by
workers may be designed to deter assistance to certain
Khartoum’s unilateral decisions regarding the transit and
communities. The U.N. Security Council authorized an
export of South Sudanese oil through Sudan, and by border
increase in peacekeeping forces for UNMISS at the onset of
disputes, suspended oil production for over a year. This led to
the conflict and, in May 2014, modified the mission’s mandate
fiscal austerity measures and economic shocks in both
to focus on four key tasks: protecting civilians, monitoring and
countries, and to clashes that threatened to reignite the war.
investigating human rights abuses, facilitating aid delivery, and
Most SPLM leaders publicly put aside their differences as the
supporting the cessation of hostilities deal. In March 2015, the
war was ending to present a unified front and, in some cases,
Security Council unanimously passed a U.S-sponsored
position themselves for political office. However, ethnic
resolution, 2206 (2015), laying the framework for targeted
tensions and bitter interpersonal rivalries grew under the strain
sanctions. Deliberations on a possible U.N. arms embargo
of increased governing responsibilities, amid severe human,
continue. East African officials have repeatedly threatened
institutional, and infrastructure capacity constraints. The
punitive measures against the warring parties, but several
country remained awash in small arms, and localized
leaders in the region maintain close ties to South Sudanese
interethnic violence increased and appeared increasingly
elites, potentially inhibiting political will to support sanctions.
politicized. Political maneuvering ahead of anticipated 2015
elections added to these dynamics. Work on a new constitution
U.S. Policy and Foreign Assistance
stalled, and a political struggle among senior SPLM members
The United States played a major role in facilitating the CPA
unfolded. President Kiir’s July 2013 cabinet reshuffle, in
and South Sudan’s subsequent independence, and the United
which long-time political rival and presidential hopeful
States has been the country’s largest bilateral foreign aid
Machar and other key officials were removed from office,
donor. It also plays a lead role in U.N. Security Council
formalized a major fissure in the ruling party. Tensions rose as
deliberations on the country. Engagement by Congress has
Machar and others publicly accused President Kiir of
been historically driven by human rights and humanitarian
becoming increasingly dictatorial.
concerns. The current conflict, along with previous allegations
The conflict began on December 15, reportedly with fighting
of corruption and human rights abuses, has strained the
in Juba among presidential guard soldiers from the country’s
bilateral relationship. U.S. officials have sought to pressure
two largest ethnic groups, the Dinka and the Nuer, from which
both sides to accept a settlement that will facilitate
Kiir and Machar, respectively, hail. The fighting soon spread
reconciliation and as accountability for crimes committed
to the eastern state of Jonglei, where intercommunal violence
during the conflict. President Obama imposed targeted
had already displaced 100,000 people, and to the oil-producing
sanctions under Executive Order 13664 on two military leaders
states of Unity and Upper Nile. The military split, largely
deemed responsible for fueling the war—a senior rebel
along ethnic lines. Some military units rebelled against Kiir,
commander and the head of the presidential guard—in May
purportedly in response to targeted attacks against Nuer in
2014. Two additional commanders were sanctioned in
Juba by government forces. Ugandan military support for the
September 2014. In March 2015, Secretary of State John Kerry
government has been controversial. Other neighbors have
declared that “legitimacy is not a presumed right of any
sought to maintain the appearance of neutrality, although some
government, accusing the government of neglecting its
South Sudan officials accuse Sudan of arming the opposition.
responsibility to “demonstrat[e] leadership to protect and serve
all citizens” and criticizing both sides for failing to make
Senior SPLM political figures were arrested in the first days of
needed compromises. The State Department has requested
the conflict, purportedly for plotting a coup. U.S. officials
$265 million in FY2016 foreign aid for South Sudan (not
reported no evidence of such an effort. The detained politicians
including anticipated humanitarian aid) to deliver essential and
were later released, but not exonerated, and have sought to
life-saving health and education services, promote government
form a third block at the peace talks. Rebuilding trust among
accountability, and facilitate local and national peace
political leaders, and between communities affected by ethnic
processes, in addition to a request of more than $340 million to
violence, may prove increasingly difficult the longer the crisis
support UNMISS.
continues.
Lauren Ploch Blanchard, lploch@crs.loc.gov, 7-7640
Responding to the Crisis

The international community is mobilizing humanitarian,
peacekeeping, and diplomatic resources to respond to needs,
IF10218
protect civilians, and bring an end to the conflict. The United
States is by far the largest humanitarian donor, giving more
than $1 billion in aid since the conflict began.
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