African Growth and Opportunity Act
(AGOA): Background and Reauthorization

Brock R. Williams
Analyst in International Trade and Finance
April 22, 2015
Congressional Research Service
7-5700
www.crs.gov
R43173


African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA): Background and Reauthorization

Summary
The African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) is a nonreciprocal trade preference program
that provides duty-free treatment to U.S. imports of certain products from eligible sub-Saharan
African (SSA) countries. There are 49 candidate SSA countries with 39 currently eligible for the
preference benefits. Congress first authorized AGOA in 2000 to encourage export-led growth and
economic development in SSA and improve U.S. economic relations with the region. Its current
authorization expires on September 30, 2015. Bills to renew the preference program (H.R.
1891/S. 1009) were introduced in the House and Senate on April 17 and April 20.
In terms of tariff benefits and general eligibility criteria, AGOA is similar to the Generalized
System of Preferences (GSP), a U.S. trade preference program that applies to more than 120
developing countries. AGOA, however, covers more products and includes additional eligibility
criteria beyond those in GSP. Additionally, AGOA includes trade and development provisions
beyond its duty-free preferences.
U.S. imports from AGOA beneficiary countries (AGOA countries) represent a small share (1%)
of total U.S. imports and are largely concentrated in energy-related products. Oil is consistently
the top duty-free U.S. import from AGOA countries, accounting for 68% of such imports in 2014.
Despite remaining the top U.S. import under AGOA, U.S. oil imports from the region have fallen
by 80% or nearly $40 billion since 2011. Among non-energy products, apparel is the top export
for a number of AGOA countries. U.S. apparel imports typically face relatively high tariffs and
are excluded from duty-free treatment in GSP, but are included in the AGOA preferences, giving
AGOA countries a competitive advantage over other apparel producers. A handful of countries,
primarily Lesotho, Kenya, and Mauritius, make significant use of the apparel benefits. Apart from
apparel and energy products, South Africa accounts for the bulk of U.S. imports under AGOA. As
the most economically advanced country in the region, South Africa also exports a much more
diverse range of manufactured goods than other AGOA countries; vehicles in particular have
become a major South African export under AGOA.
Most observers agree that AGOA has successfully led to increased and more diversified exports
to the United States from sub-Saharan African countries. Despite this, Congress may wish to
address a number of issues and challenges as it considers possible reauthorization of AGOA.
Among these challenges is how current and potential AGOA beneficiaries can better utilize the
AGOA program and its duty-free benefits. Studies suggest that even among some countries that
do make significant use of the AGOA preferences, the lower-skill apparel production which
AGOA has spurred has not led to the production of higher-skill manufactured products. Other
issues relate to the nonreciprocal nature of the AGOA preferences. Some argue that the United
States should focus more on two-way trade agreements with the region, particularly with more
advanced countries such as South Africa, given improving economic conditions in Africa in
recent years. The European Union (EU), for example, has negotiated Economic Partnership
Agreements (EPAs) with several African countries that provide some reciprocal tariff benefits,
potentially placing U.S. firms at a competitive disadvantage relative to European firms in some
markets.

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African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA): Background and Reauthorization

Contents
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Key Provisions of AGOA ................................................................................................................ 2
Unilateral Trade Preference Program ........................................................................................ 2
Product Coverage ................................................................................................................ 3
Rules of Origin .................................................................................................................... 3
Textile and Apparel Provisions .................................................................................................. 4
Third-Country Fabric Provision .......................................................................................... 5
Eligibility ................................................................................................................................... 5
Least-Developed Country Status ......................................................................................... 6
AGOA Forum ............................................................................................................................ 6
Technical Assistance and Capacity Building ............................................................................. 7
Annual Report to Congress ....................................................................................................... 8
U.S. Imports under AGOA and GSP ................................................................................................ 9
Impacts of AGOA .......................................................................................................................... 12
Reauthorization Debate.................................................................................................................. 14
Considerations for Potential Reforms ...................................................................................... 15
Length of Reauthorization ................................................................................................. 15
Country Eligibility............................................................................................................. 15
Intra-African Trade ............................................................................................................ 16
Two-Way Trade ................................................................................................................. 16
Country Participation ........................................................................................................ 17
Trade Capacity Building (TCB) ........................................................................................ 17
Product Coverage .............................................................................................................. 18
Rules of Origin .................................................................................................................. 18
Trade Disputes—Poultry and South Africa ....................................................................... 19
Duty-Free Quota-Free (DFQF) Beyond Africa ................................................................. 19
Proposed Renewal Legislation ................................................................................................ 20

Figures
Figure 1. Non-Energy U.S. Imports from SSA under AGOA and GSP ......................................... 10
Figure 2. Top AGOA and GSP Exporters excluding Energy Products .......................................... 11
Figure 3. Oil and Non-Oil Imports from SSA under AGOA and GSP .......................................... 12

Tables
Table 1. U.S. Imports of Apparel Products by Country ................................................................. 10
Table A-1. AGOA and GSP Eligibility, U.S. Imports, and GSP/Capita, by Country ..................... 21

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African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA): Background and Reauthorization

Appendixes
Appendix. Sub-Saharan African Countries .................................................................................... 21

Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 22
Acknowledgments ......................................................................................................................... 23

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African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA): Background and Reauthorization

Introduction
In 2000, Congress passed the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), a U.S. trade
preference program, in order to help spur market-led economic growth and development in
sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and deepen U.S. trade and investment ties with the region.1 Since its
enactment, Congress has amended AGOA five times, making some technical changes and
renewing the trade preferences through September 30, 2015. Bills to renew the preference
program (H.R. 1891/S. 1009) were introduced in the House and Senate on April 17 and April 20
(see “Proposed Renewal Legislation” section for details).
According to the United States Trade Representative (USTR), “AGOA has been the cornerstone
of America’s economic engagement with sub-Saharan Africa over the past fourteen years.”2
Economic conditions in Africa have changed considerably since Congress passed the initial
AGOA legislation. Annual real gross domestic product (GDP) growth in SSA was a half
percentage point lower than global GDP growth (2.7% vs. 3.3%) in the decade leading up to
AGOA’s passage (1990-2000).3 Since AGOA was enacted (2001-2013), however, SSA’s growth
averaged 6.3%, more than 2 points higher than the 3.9% world average. While the region still
contains many of the world’s poorest countries and faces significant economic challenges, some
observers and policymakers argue that changing economic conditions warrant an evolution in
U.S. policy toward SSA, focused more strongly on private sector investment and increasing two-
way trade.4 In recent years, SSA’s growing economic potential and abundant natural resources
have attracted other foreign investors, including state-supported enterprises from countries such
as China, which is now the region’s largest trading partner.
Some Members of Congress, the Obama Administration, and many African governments have
highlighted the successes of AGOA and have called for an expedited reauthorization process. As
part of this process, Congress may wish to consider whether AGOA, in its current form, is
achieving the initial goals of the program, including whether it addresses effectively the changing
economic circumstances in Africa. Most interested observers are positive about the AGOA
preference program, but some have expressed concerns about specific provisions of the program,
such as the lack of coverage for certain agricultural products, or would like to see the AGOA
preferences granted to a broader range of least-developed countries beyond just Africa. Others
would like to see a broader program that addresses concerns over U.S. businesses’ ability to
effectively compete in the region, though this could also be addressed in complementary
legislation or Administration initiatives.5 This report seeks to inform the discussion on the

1 Trade preference programs give nonreciprocal duty-free U.S. market access to select exports of eligible less-
developed countries.
2 Hearing Testimony by Ambassador Michael Froman, U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Finance, The African
Growth and Opportunity Act at 14: The Road Ahead
, 113th Cong., 2nd sess., July 30, 2014,
http://www.finance.senate.gov/hearings/hearing/?id=f5251f60-5056-a032-52f0-742dc672610d.
3 Analysis by CRS. Data from International Monetary Fund, World Economic Outlook, October 2014.
4 For example, in remarks leading up to President Obama’s 2013 trip to Africa, USTR Michael Froman stated, “If we
are to achieve sustainable development, it is our view that investment must be the driver.” USTR, “Remarks by United
States Trade Representative Michael Froman to the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition,” press release, June 25, 2013
http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/press-office/press-releases/2013/june/remarks-united-states-trade-representative-michael-
fr.
5 For example, a bill was introduced in the 113th Congress relating to efforts to increase U.S. exports to Africa (H.R.
1777 and S. 718) and the Administration has initiated programs such as Trade Africa, which centers on a potential trade
and investment agreement with the East African Community.
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potential reauthorization of AGOA through analysis of (1) the components of the AGOA
legislation; (2) U.S. import trends associated with AGOA; (3) the impact of AGOA on African
economies and U.S.-Africa trade; and (4) the issues surrounding the reauthorization process.
Key Provisions of AGOA6
AGOA (Title I, P.L. 106-200), as amended, is a nonreciprocal preference program that provides
duty-free access into the United States for qualifying exports from eligible SSA countries. Among
the products that qualify for this duty-free treatment, apparel products have particular economic
significance for several countries, in part due to special provisions granted to least-developed
AGOA countries (“Third-Country Fabric Provision”).7 In addition to the tariff preferences, the
AGOA legislation includes mandates for an annual meeting of U.S. and African government
officials to discuss trade and economic issues—the AGOA Forum—as well as specific guidelines
on U.S. development assistance directed toward SSA. Countries must meet specific eligibility
requirements to qualify for these benefits.
Table A-1 in the Appendix provides a list of SSA countries, as defined by AGOA. It highlights
the 39 current AGOA beneficiary countries, and notes their eligibility status for other aspects of
the AGOA preferences and the Generalized System of Preferences (GSP). It also lists U.S.
imports under AGOA and GSP for each country and its GDP/capita—a rough measure of a
country’s level of economic development.
Unilateral Trade Preference Program
At the core of AGOA are the tariff benefits that provide duty-free access to the U.S. market for
certain products from eligible SSA countries. In terms of these tariff benefits and country
eligibility requirements, AGOA is essentially an expansion of GSP, a U.S. trade preference
program that applies to over 120 developing countries, including SSA countries. AGOA builds on
GSP by providing preferential access to the U.S. market for more products, such as apparel, and
sets out additional eligibility criteria. AGOA also includes other trade and development
components, beyond preferences, that are not part of GSP.8
AGOA, like other U.S. trade preference programs, is nonreciprocal and unilateral. The
preferences apply to U.S. imports and not to U.S. exports, so reauthorization only requires action
by the U.S. government. These one-way preferences are granted to developing countries with the
goal of enhancing export-led economic growth, and typically exclude items that may be
considered import sensitive. This distinguishes them from other U.S. trade liberalization efforts
such as free trade agreements (FTAs) or multilateral agreements through the World Trade
Organization (WTO), which reduce and/or eliminate tariffs for both U.S. imports and exports.
AGOA included a provision requiring the President to explore potential FTA negotiations with

6 Some of this material was drawn from a previous CRS report by Vivian C. Jones.
7 Apparel production is an important component of AGOA because it is seen as a manufacturing sector with relatively
low technological and investment barriers to entry by newly industrializing countries and as having high job-generation
potential for relatively low-skilled labor forces, both issues of relevance to many African countries.
8 In addition to AGOA, there are three other U.S. regional preference programs that have different product coverage
than GSP: the Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act (CBERA); the Caribbean Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA);
and the Haitian Opportunity through Partnership Encouragement (HOPE) Act.8
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interested AGOA beneficiaries, suggesting that Congress envisioned AGOA as a stepping stone to
potential broader trade pacts with African countries. FTA negotiations with South Africa and its
regional partners in the South African Customs Union (SACU) sprang from this mandate in
AGOA, but were ultimately unsuccessful and suspended in 2006.9
Product Coverage
The tariff benefits provided by AGOA include all products covered by GSP, as well as additional
products the President determines are not import-sensitive with regard to imports from SSA.10
According to a report by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) in 2008, the U.S.
Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) includes some 10,500 individual tariff lines for U.S. goods
imports, of which roughly 3,800 have no most-favored nation (MFN) tariff (i.e., all WTO
members may export them to the U.S. duty-free).11 GSP removes the tariff on an additional 3,400
products (4,800 for least-developed countries), and AGOA makes another 1,800 tariff lines duty-
free, though a large share of these are included in the GSP benefits for least-developed countries
(LDCs).12 AGOA extends duty-free treatment to certain apparel and footwear products, which are
not eligible under GSP (even for LDCs). Agricultural products subject to tariff-rate quotas (TRQ)
remain ineligible for duty-free treatment under both AGOA and GSP.13 AGOA beneficiaries are
also exempt from certain caps on allowable duty-free imports under the GSP program
(“competitive need limitations”).14
Rules of Origin
Products from AGOA countries must meet certain rules of origin (ROO) requirements in order to
qualify for duty-free treatment (see the textiles and apparel section for sector-specific rules of
origin). First, duty-free entry is only allowed if the article is imported directly from the
beneficiary country into the United States. Second, at least 35% of the appraised value of the
product must be the “growth, product or manufacture” of a beneficiary developing country, as
defined by the sum of (1) the cost or value of materials produced in the beneficiary developing
country (or any two or more beneficiary countries that are members of the same association or
countries and are treated as one country for purposes of the U.S. law) plus (2) the direct costs of
processing in the country. Up to 15% of the required 35% of the appraised value may be of U.S.
origin, and any amount of production in other beneficiary SSA countries may also contribute to
the value-added requirement (“regional cumulation”).15

9 Observers cited several possible reasons for the unsuccessful FTA negotiations, including the capacity of SACU
nations to negotiate a U.S.-style (comprehensive and high-standard) FTA, and disagreements between the parties on the
scope and level of ambition of the negotiations.
10 The AGOA trade preferences, including the portion covered by GSP, are in effect through September 2015,
regardless of GSP’s reauthorization.
11 U.S. Government Accountability Office, U.S. Trade Preference Programs Provide Important Benefits, but a More
Integrated Approach Would Better Ensure Programs Meet Shared Goals
, GAO-08-443, March 2008, pp. 70-72.
12 Ibid.
13 TRQs are two-tiered tariffs. In-quota import quantities face one tariff, while above-quota import quantities face
another, typically much higher, tariff.
14 CRS Report RL33663, Generalized System of Preferences: Background and Renewal Debate, by Vivian C. Jones.
15 §506A of P.L. 93-618, as added by §111 of P.L. 106-200, and amended by §7 of P.L. 108-274.
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Textile and Apparel Provisions
AGOA includes duty-free treatment for certain apparel and textile products, though some are
subject to quantitative limitations. These provisions in AGOA are significant, because (1) apparel
production has played a unique role in the development process of some countries; and (2) the
duty-free benefits apply to a sector with relatively higher U.S. tariff rates than average overall
U.S. tariff rates. Not all AGOA beneficiaries are eligible for the apparel provisions. Duty-free
treatment for apparel products under AGOA requires beneficiary countries to adopt an efficient
visa ("tracking”) system to prevent unlawful transshipment—production shipped through and
exported from, but not actually produced in, a given country, often for particular tariff or quota
benefits.16
Apparel production has been a significant component in some countries’ economic
development.17 Unlike textile production, it typically requires low-skilled labor and minimal
capital expenditures, allowing lesser-developed countries to become globally competitive. Some
research suggests that success in low-skill and export intensive industries such as apparel may
help lead to a more diversified manufacturing sector.18 Nonetheless, the U.S. apparel sector is
deemed “import sensitive,” and has some specific safeguards. For example, in U.S. free trade
agreements (FTAs), apparel tariff lines typically have “yarn forward” general rules of origin
(which govern how much of the product must be made in the beneficiary country and longer tariff
phase outs), and most preference programs either exclude these articles (GSP) or have caps on
duty-free treatment (including AGOA).19
The existing general restrictions on U.S. imports of apparel make AGOA’s preferential treatment
for these product lines especially advantageous. The average U.S. applied tariff on apparel is
11.4% compared to an average for all products of 3.5%.20 This relatively high preference margin
may help explain how some AGOA producers, especially the LDCs, are competitive with lower-
cost producers in Asia and elsewhere.21
Textile and apparel articles qualifying for duty-free treatment include
• Apparel assembled in one or more AGOA beneficiary countries from U.S. yarn
and fabric;
• Apparel made of SSA (regional) yarns and fabrics, subject to a cap until 2015;
• Apparel made in a designated LDC of third-country yarns and fabrics, subject to
a cap until 2015;

16 For more information, see Department of Commerce, Office of Textiles and Apparel (OTEXA) Summary of AGOA
textile and apparel provisions at OTEXA website, http://otexa.ita.doc.gov.
17 Karina Fernandez-Stark, Stacey Frederick, and Gary Gereffi, The Apparel Global Value Chain, Duke Center on
Globalization Governance and Competitiveness, November 2011.
18 Paul Collier and Anthony Venables, Rethinking Trade Preferences to Help Diversify African Exports, Centre for
Economic Policy Research, June 2007.
19 A “yarn forward” rule means that, in order to qualify for trade benefits under an FTA, all products in a garment from
the yarn stage forward must be made in one of the countries that is party to the agreement.
20 World Trade Organization, World Tariff Profiles—United States, 2012.
21 For a discussion of challenges faced by African firms, see Ann E. Harrison, Justin Yifu Lin, and L. Colin Xu,
Explaining Africa’s (Dis)Advantage, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 18683, January 2013.
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• Apparel made of yarns and fabrics not produced in commercial quantities in the
United States (determination must be made that the yarn or fabric cannot be
supplied by the U.S. industry in a timely manner, and to extend preferential
treatment to the eligible fabric);
• Certain cashmere and merino wool sweaters;
• Textiles and textile articles produced entirely in an LDC SSA beneficiary
country; and
• Certain handloomed, handmade, ethnic printed fabrics, or folklore articles
(certain countries only).22
Third-Country Fabric Provision
AGOA’s third-country fabric provision is a special rule that allows U.S. apparel imports from
least-developed SSA countries to qualify for duty-free treatment even if the yarns and fabrics
used in the production of the apparel are imported from non-AGOA countries. This provision,
which was reauthorized in August 2012 (P.L. 112-163), is currently set to expire in September
2015, along with the overall AGOA program.
Eligibility
Eligibility for the AGOA trade preference program consists of two separate steps. First, the
country must be included in a statutorily created list of sub-Saharan African countries, described
in AGOA (19 U.S.C. 3706). This list has been updated periodically by new legislation (e.g., the
112th Congress added South Sudan in P.L. 112-163).
The second step requires the President to determine annually which eligible countries, from those
on the list of SSA countries defined by Congress, should become beneficiaries of the AGOA
preferences. There are two different sets of criteria for the President’s consideration in this
process: Section 104 of AGOA (19 U.S.C. 3703) and Section 502 of the Trade Act of 1974, or
GSP (19 U.S.C. 2462).
Section 104 is specific to AGOA and requires the President to consider a number
of factors related to the prospective AGOA country’s economy; rule of law;
elimination of barriers to U.S. trade and investment; poverty reduction efforts;
protection of worker rights; support of terrorist activities; and interference with
U.S. national security and foreign policy efforts.
Section 502, as amended, sets out the eligibility requirements of the Generalized
System of Preferences (GSP), which must also be met by any AGOA beneficiary
country. These also include a number of economic and political factors.
In two separate proclamations in 2014, the Obama Administration has made changes to AGOA
country eligibility. In June, the President reinstated AGOA eligibility for Madagascar effective
immediately, and terminated AGOA eligibility for Swaziland, due to issues with worker rights,

22 Department of Commerce, Office of Textiles and Apparel (OTEXA) Summary of AGOA textile and apparel
provisions at OTEXA website, http://otexa.ita.doc.gov.
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effective January 1, 2015.23 Swaziland has been a top exporter under AGOA—the fifth largest,
excluding energy products, in 2014. In December, the President reinstated benefits for Guinea-
Bissau, and terminated benefits for South Sudan and The Gambia, due to issues with human
rights.24
Least-Developed Country Status
AGOA, like GSP, has additional benefits for least-developed beneficiary countries (LDCs). Under
GSP, these countries qualify for duty-free treatment on an additional 1,400 products. Under
AGOA, the additional benefits are more flexible rules governing the duty-free treatment of
textiles and apparel. Unlike GSP, which provides the President broad latitude in determining LDC
status, AGOA defines LDCs as countries with a per capita gross national product (GNP) of less
than $1,500 in 1998 as measured by the World Bank.25 Botswana, Namibia, and Mauritius are
also explicitly granted LDC status in AGOA, despite GNP per capita levels above that threshold.
This exemption is particularly economically significant for Mauritius; it is the fourth-largest
exporter under AGOA (excluding oil trade) and exports primarily apparel products under the
preference program.
AGOA Forum
AGOA requires the President, in consultation with Congress and the other governments
concerned, to hold annually a United States-Sub-Saharan Africa Trade and Economic
Cooperation Forum.26 The purpose of the Forum, which is held in alternate years in the United
States and Africa, is to “discuss expanding trade and investment relations between the United
States and Sub-Saharan Africa and the implementation of [AGOA] including encouraging joint
ventures between small and large businesses.” The Forum typically includes a Ministerial among
government officials, as well as sessions focused on civil society representatives and the business
community. The 13th AGOA Forum took place in Washington DC, from August 4-6, 2014, as part
of the larger U.S.-Africa Leaders Summit, and focused heavily on AGOA’s potential
reauthorization.27 In his speech at the 2014 Forum, Secretary of State John Kerry announced that
the 2015 AGOA Forum will be held in Gabon, a first for Central Africa.28

23 The June 26, 2014 proclamation may be found at http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2014/06/26/
presidential-proclamation-agoa. Additional information on the changes in eligibility status is available via USTR’s
website at http://www.ustr.gov/about-us/press-office/press-releases/2014/June/President-Obama-removes-Swaziland-
reinstates-Madagascar-for-AGOA-Benefits.
24 The December 23, 2014 proclamation may be found at https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-
office/2014/12/23/presidential-proclamation-take-certain-actions-under-african-growth-and-.
25 19 U.S.C. §2462(a)(2) and 19 U.S.C. §3721(c)(3).
26 Representatives from appropriate sub-Saharan African regional organizations and government officials from other
appropriate countries in sub-Saharan Africa also could be invited, and generally are. African countries hosting the
Forum must be nominated by their participant peers and be able to sponsor associated costs.
27 For more information, see CRS Report R43655, U.S.-Africa Leaders Summit: Frequently Asked Questions and
Background
, coordinated by Nicolas Cook.
28 U.S. Department of State, "Remarks at the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) Ministerial," press release,
August 4, 2014, http://www.state.gov/secretary/remarks/2014/08/230178.htm.
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Technical Assistance and Capacity Building
Unlike other U.S. preference programs, AGOA directs the President to target U.S. government
technical assistance and trade capacity building (TCB) in AGOA beneficiary countries.29 This
assistance is intended to encourage governments to (1) liberalize trade policy; (2) harmonize laws
and regulations with WTO membership commitments; (3) engage in financial and fiscal
restructuring; and (4) promote greater agribusiness linkages. AGOA also includes assistance for
developing private sector business associations and networks among U.S. and SSA enterprises.
Technical assistance must be targeted to increasing the number of reverse trade missions;
increasing trade in services; addressing critical agricultural policy issues; and building
capabilities of African states to participate in the WTO, generally, and, particularly, in services. In
FY2013, the United States reported obligating approximately $209 million in TCB assistance to
AGOA countries, up from $191 million in 2012, but down considerably from 2006-2011, during
which TCB funding averaged over $600 million per year.30 From 2001 to 2013, TCB assistance
has been provided primarily through the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC, 58%) and the
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID, 31%), with 53% of funds obligated for
trade-related infrastructure, 15% for trade-related agriculture projects, 11% for trade facilitation,
and 21% for other TCB categories.31
In addition to these broad mandates, AGOA includes language pertaining to the following
agencies:
Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC). Section 123 expresses the
sense of Congress that OPIC should exercise its authority to support projects in
SSA and directs OPIC to increase funds directed to SSA countries.
Export-Import Bank (Ex-Im Bank). Section 124 of AGOA expresses the sense
of Congress that the Ex-Im Bank should continue to expand its financial
commitments to its loan guarantee and insurance programs to African countries
and commends the Bank’s sub-Saharan Africa Advisory Committee for its work
in fostering economic cooperation between the United States and SSA.
Established in Ex-Im Bank’s 1997 reauthorization legislation, the advisory
committee originally was set to expire in 2001. Subsequent Ex-Im Bank
reauthorizations have typically extended the committee’s termination, most
recently through September 30, 2014.32 The current Ex-Im Bank reauthorization
(through June 30, 2015), however, did not explicitly authorize the committee, and
it is not currently operational.33
United States Trade Representative (USTR). Section 117 supports the creation
of an Assistant USTR for Africa to serve as the “primary point of contact in the
executive branch for those persons engaged in trade between the United States

29 Section 122 of P.L. 106-200 (19 U.S.C. §3732).
30 U.S. Government Accountability Office, African Growth and Opportunity Act, USAID Could Enhance Utilization by
Working with More Countries to Develop Export Strategies
, GAO-15-218, January 22, 2015, pp. 8-9. USAID, which
administers the collection and dissemination of the data on TCB, reports the MCC funding in the year it is granted,
though the distribution of the funds occurs over several years. See http://tcb.eads.usaidallnet.gov/.
31 Ibid.
32 Export-Import Bank Reauthorization Act, 12 U.S.C. 635(b)(9)(B)(iii).
33 For further information, see Ex-Im Bank, “Sub-Saharan Africa Advisory Committee,”
http://www.exim.gov/about/whoweare/sub-saharan-africa-advisory-committee.cfm.
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and sub-Saharan Africa,” and the chief adviser to the U.S. Trade Representative
(USTR) on trade and investment issues pertaining to Africa. This position
previously had been established by President Clinton in 1998.
U.S. Foreign Commercial Service (CS). Section 125 notes that the CS presence
in SSA had been reduced since the 1980s and the level of staffing in 1997 (seven
officers in four countries) did not “adequately service the needs of U.S.
businesses attempting to do business in sub-Saharan Africa.”34 Accordingly, the
legislation required the posting of at least 20 CS officers in not less than 10
countries in SSA by December 31, 2001, “subject to the availability of
appropriations.”35 According to data provided by the Department of Commerce
for FY2014, there are 15 CS officers in sub-Saharan Africa, up from 5 in
FY2012. These are located in Angola (4), Ethiopia (1), Ghana (1), Kenya (2),
Mozambique (1), Nigeria (2), South Africa (3), and Tanzania (1).
U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). Aside from MCC
compacts that include TCB, USAID funds much of the trade capacity building
efforts related to AGOA ($1.6 billion since 2001). In 2011, the Administration
announced the African Competitiveness and Trade Expansion (ACTE) initiative,
a trade and investment initiative with funding of up to $30 million annually,
subject to appropriations.36 ACTE supports the three African Trade Hubs, one of
USAID’s most oft-cited AGOA-related projects.37 Based in Ghana, Kenya, and
Botswana, the Trade Hubs attempt to help potential exporters become globally
competitive and make full use of their AGOA benefits.38 As part of the
Administration’s Trade Africa Initiative, the East Africa Trade Hub has been
renamed the East Africa Trade and Investment Hub and is expanding its focus to
include two-way trade and investment between the United States and the East
African Community.39
Annual Report to Congress
Originally, AGOA also required the President to submit an annual “comprehensive report on the
trade and investment policy of the United States for sub-Saharan Africa.” In a subsequent
reauthorization of the AGOA trade preferences, this requirement was not extended. The most
recent report was in 2008.

34 AGOA, §125(a)(4).
35 AGOA, §125(b).
36 USAID, “U.S. Announces New African Trade Capacity Building Initiative at AGOA Forum,” press release, June 9,
2011, http://www.usaid.gov/news-information/press-releases/us-announces-new-african-trade-capacity-building-
initiative-agoa.
37 For example, see Hearing Testimony by Earl W. Gast, U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations,
Subcommittee on African Affairs, Economic Statecraft: Embracing Africa’s Market Potential, 112th Cong., 2nd sess.,
June 28, 2012, S.Hrg. 112-604 (Washington: GPO, 2012), p. 10.
38 Each of the three regional Trade Hubs has its own website with information on its activities. For more information
see West Africa, http://www.watradehub.com; East Africa, https://eatradehub.nationbuilder.com/; and South Africa,
http://www.satradehub.org/.
39 For more information, see http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/07/01/fact-sheet-trade-africa.
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U.S. Imports under AGOA and GSP40
U.S. imports from AGOA countries represent a small share of overall U.S. imports. In 2014, the
United States imported $2,314 billion in goods, of which $25.6 billion, or slightly more than 1%,
came from AGOA countries. 56% of these imports ($14.2 billion) received duty-free treatment,
under either AGOA or GSP, though crude oil accounts for a significant portion of this. Excluding
crude oil, 35% of U.S. imports from AGOA countries received duty-free treatment under AGOA
or GSP.41
Energy-related products (e.g., crude oil) dominate U.S. imports from SSA under AGOA and GSP,
representing 69% of such imports in 2014, though these imports have fallen sharply in the past
three years.42 Given SSA’s abundant natural resources and the already low U.S. tariff on oil
($0.05-$0.10 per barrel), much of this trade would likely occur regardless of the preference
program. The discussion that follows focuses on non-energy trade between the United States and
SSA. (See the text box below for more information on U.S. oil imports under AGOA.)
In 2014, U.S. imports from SSA under AGOA and GSP, excluding energy products, were $4.4
billion (Figure 1). These imports have increased nearly three-fold (up from $1.3 billion) since
2001, the first full year of AGOA eligibility. They fell by $500 million from 2013 to 2014, but
this was primarily due to lower auto imports from South Africa. Apparel products remain one of
the largest non-oil import categories; however, these imports peaked in 2004 prior to the
dismantling of the complex multilateral quota system, known as the Multifiber Agreement
(MFA). The MFA limited U.S. apparel imports from certain countries, thus eliminating the extent
of competition faced by AGOA apparel exporters. Though U.S. apparel imports still face
relatively high tariffs, removal of these strict quantitative limitations reduced the AGOA
countries’ competitive advantage in producing apparel. U.S. apparel imports under AGOA,
though very significant for some AGOA countries, represent only 1% of overall U.S. apparel
imports. U.S. apparel imports totaled $82.7 billion in 2014, with $30.7 billion from China, $9.2
billion from Vietnam, and less than $1 billion total from AGOA beneficiaries (Table 1).
While U.S. apparel imports from AGOA countries have declined from their peak in 2004, imports
of other products have been rising rapidly. Vehicle imports have seen strong growth, rising from
$289 million in 2001 to nearly $2.2 billion in 2013, although they declined considerably to $1.4
billion in 2014. These and other more advanced manufactured products, such as chemicals, come
almost exclusively from South Africa. Imports of products with more widespread origins have
grown on a more modest scale. U.S. imports of food and agriculture products under AGOA and
GSP, including nuts, fruits, cocoa, sugar, beverages, and tobacco, have increased from $139
million to $467 million during the same period. Such imports grew by $20 million from 2013 to
2014.

40 AGOA and GSP overlap in their product coverage so this discussion considers them jointly. Trade data in this
section come from the U.S. International Trade Commission’s dataweb, http://dataweb.usitc.gov/, and
http://dataweb.usitc.gov/africa/trade_data.asp.
41 Though only 35% of non-oil imports entered the United States under AGOA or GSP, an additional 57% of non-oil
imports entered duty-free because they face no import tariff in the United States. In total in 2014, over 90% of U.S.
non-oil imports from the region entered the United States duty-free.
42 Unless otherwise specified, energy-related products refers to HTS chapter 27.
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U.S. imports from SSA under AGOA and GSP are heavily concentrated in a few countries.
Figure 2 highlights the top exporters of non-energy products to the United States under both
programs. Excluding energy products, U.S. preferential imports from South Africa totaled $3.1
billion in 2014, accounting for 70% of all such U.S. imports from SSA. Other top non-energy
exporters under AGOA/GSP in 2014 were the major apparel producers: Kenya ($423 million),
Lesotho ($289 million), Mauritius ($227 million), and Swaziland ($77 million), as well as Cote
d`Ivoire ($70 million) and Malawi ($60 million), who exported primarily cocoa products and
tobacco under the preference programs, respectively. Aside from these top countries, however, the
preferences were not heavily utilized. U.S. preferential imports were less than $1 million for over
half of the 40 AGOA beneficiary countries in 2014.
Figure 1. Non-Energy U.S. Imports from SSA under AGOA and GSP
$Millions of U.S. dollars
$6,000
Metals
$4,000
Other Products
$2,000
Vehicles
Apparel
$0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Source: Analysis by CRS. Data from U.S. International Trade Commission (ITC).
Notes: Imports for consumption basis. Metals defined as HTS chapters 76 and 72; vehicles as HTS chapter 87;
apparel as HTS chapters 61 and 62; and energy as HTS chapter 27.
Table 1. U.S. Imports of Apparel Products by Country
(in millions of U.S. dollars, 2014)
Top Overall Countries
Import Value
Top AGOA Countries
Import Value
China $30,369
Kenya $379
Vietnam 9,184
Lesotho 290
Indonesia 4,862
Mauritius 223
Bangladesh 4,708
Swaziland
55
Mexico 3,854
Madagascar
20
Source: Analysis by CRS. Imports for consumption data from U.S. ITC trade dataweb.
Notes: Imports for consumption basis. Apparel products defined as HTS chapters 61 and 62.
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Figure 2. Top AGOA and GSP Exporters excluding Energy Products

Source: Analysis by CRS. Data from U.S. ITC.
Notes: Imports for consumption basis. Energy products defined as HTS chapter 27. Stars represent preferential
treatment on over 75% of total exports to the United States, including energy products. Map only includes
countries eligible for AGOA benefits in 2014.
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U.S. Oil Imports Under AGOA and GSP
Crude oil has been the top U.S. import from SSA under AGOA and GSP since AGOA’s first ful year of duty-free
treatment in 2001 (Figure 3). The fol owing are key facts regarding U.S. oil imports under AGOA and GSP.

The top 5 AGOA-eligible oil exporters are Angola, Nigeria, Chad, Gabon, and Republic of Congo.

Both AGOA and GSP grant duty-free status to U.S. crude oil imports.

GSP only affords this treatment to least-developed countries (LDCs).

Nigeria is not considered an LDC under GSP and so depends on AGOA for duty-free treatment of its crude oil
exports to the United States. It is the only major AGOA-eligible oil exporter that is not considered an LDC
under GSP.

The high market value of oil coupled with a low U.S. import tariff, $0.05-$0.10 per barrel, makes AGOA and
GSP’s crude oil tariff benefit relatively insignificant.

U.S. crude oil imports from SSA have declined by more than 80% from 2011 to 2014 (a nearly $40 billion
decrease), which may be partially due to the increased U.S. production of shale oil, a direct competitor with oil
from some SSA countries due to its similar composition.43
Figure 3. Oil and Non-Oil Imports from SSA under AGOA and GSP
$Millions of U.S. dollars
Non-Oil
Oil
$80,000
$60,000
$40,000
$20,000
$0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Source: Analysis by CRS. Data from U.S. ITC.
Notes: Imports for consumption basis. Oil defined as HTS 4-digit category 2709.
Impacts of AGOA
Through AGOA Congress set out to improve the economic development of SSA and increase
U.S. trade ties with the region. A handful of countries have made strong use of the preference
program and have increased employment in economic sectors that benefited from duty-free
treatment under AGOA. For example, the government of Lesotho, one of the major apparel

43 Javier Blas, "Victim of Shale Revolution, Nigeria Stops Exporting Oil to U.S.," Financial Times, October 2, 2014,
Beyondbrics.
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exporters under AGOA, estimates that employment in manufacturing rose from 19,000 in 1999 to
45,700 in June 2011.44 A peer-reviewed economic study found a direct link between the AGOA
preferences and increased U.S. imports from beneficiary countries, and concluded that these
increased SSA exports were not merely diverted from other potential export destinations (e.g., the
European Union).45 This relationship was strongest for the apparel sector and other sectors with
high U.S. import tariffs.
Despite these achievements, challenges remain, such as the limited number of countries making
significant use of the preferences, and doubts as to whether AGOA countries have been able to
translate these short-term preference benefits into transformative changes in their manufacturing
capabilities and overall competitiveness.46 As highlighted above, the majority of AGOA non-oil
imports come from South Africa. Among the other countries that have made significant use of the
preferences, apparel exports account for most of their AGOA exports. While the apparel sector
has been acknowledged as a potential launching point for more advanced manufacturing
industries, the manufacturing sectors in many AGOA beneficiary countries remain highly
underdeveloped. One study asserts that AGOA apparel production is concentrated in the lowest-
skill tasks with little knowledge transfer to local workers and that the global competitiveness of
AGOA exporters still depends on their preferential treatment.47
In addition to AGOA’s tangible goals related to economic development and trade, AGOA also
supports the achievement of other strategic objectives. AGOA serves as a focal point for U.S.
economic relations with SSA. If the recent period of high economic growth in much of SSA
continues, the United States may have an increasing interest in the region’s potential as a
consumer market and destination for both U.S. exports and foreign direct investment (FDI). A
study by McKinsey estimated that the number of African households making above $5,000 per
year, the point where discretionary spending begins, would rise from 85 million in 2008 to 128
million in 2020.48 Though AGOA focuses specifically on U.S. imports, it spurs dialogue between
the United States and SSA countries on two-way trade and investment issues through the annual
AGOA Forum. Through the eligibility criteria required for the program, the United States
maintains some influence over the political and economic structure of the beneficiary countries.
These strategic aspects of AGOA may become more important as other foreign countries, such as
China, continue to increase their commercial and political ties with SSA.

44 Central Bank of Lesotho, Africa Growth and Opportunities Act (AGOA): Economic Impact and Future Prospects,
CBL Economic Review No. 131, June 2011, p. 3.
45 Garth Frazer and Johannes Van Biesebroeck, “Trade Growth under the African Growth and Opportunity Act,” The
Review of Economics and Statistics
, vol. 92, no. 1 (February 2010).
46 Niall Condon and Matthew Stern, The Effectiveness of African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) in Increasing
Trade from Least Developed Countries
, EPPI-Centre, Social Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of
London, March 2011.
47 Lawrence Edwards and Robert Z. Lawrence, AGOA Rules: The Intended and Unintended Consequences of Special
Fabric Provisions
, National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 16623, December 2010.
48 McKinsey Global Institute, Lions on the Move: The Progress and Potential of African Economies, June 2010, p. 22.
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Reauthorization Debate
AGOA’s authorization is set to expire on September 30, 2015. President Obama,49 some Members
of Congress, officials from beneficiary countries, and other stakeholders support renewing the
preferences, and have various suggestions for reform. The Obama Administration, in order to
inform its reauthorization proposals, initiated a review of AGOA during the 2013 AGOA Forum,
which ultimately included a request for four investigations by the U.S. International Trade
Commission (ITC). The ITC published its first report on AGOA’s trade and investment
performance in April 2014 following a public hearing in January.50 The other three reports, which
cover AGOA’s impact on U.S. industries and consumers, rules of origin, and the EU-South Africa
FTA, are confidential.
Ambassador Froman identified some of the Administration’s main conclusions from its AGOA
review and subsequent recommendations for AGOA’s reauthorization in his July 2014 written
testimony before the Senate Committee on Finance.51 These include the need for a sufficiently
long renewal, potential expansion of product coverage, more flexible rules of origin, updated
eligibility criteria with a more flexible review process, and eventually a more reciprocal trade
program with the region. He also suggested that the Administration’s review of AGOA pointed
largely to “supply-side” constraints, such as inadequate infrastructure, as the main barriers to
greater AGOA utilization.
Congress, too, has sought greater study of the AGOA preference program, and various Members
have expressed interest in its renewal. During the 113th Congress, relevant committee leadership,
bicameral and bipartisan, requested that GAO report on the effectiveness of AGOA, including
utilization of the preferences and its impact on two-way trade.52 GAO has published four reports,
which address (1) AGOA import competitiveness and diversification; (2) ways to enhance
AGOA’s trade capacity building (TCB) component; (3) AGOA’s eligibility process; and (4) other
countries’ trade agreements with sub-Saharan Africa.53 A primary observation was the need for
better development of country export strategies. In addition, both the Senate Committee on
Finance and the Trade Subcommittee of the House Committee on Ways and Means held hearings
in July 2014 to examine AGOA and its potential reauthorization, during which committee
leadership expressed strong support for the program.54 At the start of the 114th Congress,

49 The White House, “Remarks by President Obama at Business Leaders Forum,” press release, July 1, 2013,
http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/07/01/remarks-president-obama-business-leaders-forum.
50 U.S. International Trade Commission, AGOA: Trade and Investment Performance Overview, Publication 4461, April
2014, http://www.usitc.gov/publications/332/pub4461.pdf. Testimony and submissions for the hearing can be found
through the USITC’s website or at http://agoa.info/downloads/hearings.html.
51 http://www.finance.senate.gov/hearings/hearing/?id=f5251f60-5056-a032-52f0-742dc672610d.
52 http://foreignaffairs.house.gov/press-release/bipartisan-congressional-leaders-push-increase-effectiveness-agoa-
landmark-legislation.
53 U.S. Government Accountability Office, African Growth and Opportunity Act: Observations on Competitiveness and
Diversification of U.S. Imports from Beneficiary Countries
, GAO-14-722R, July 21, 2014,
http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-14-722R; AGOA: USAID Could Enhance Utilization by Working with More
Countries to Develop Export Strategies
, GAO-15-218, January 22, 2015, http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-15-218;
AGOA: Eligibility Process and Economics Development in Sub-Saharan Africa, GAO-15-300, February 12, 2015,
http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-15-300.; and AGOA: Lessons Learned from Other Countries' Trade Arrangements
with Sub-Saharan Africa
, GAO-15-393R, February 25, 2015, http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-15-393R.
54 U.S. Congress, House Committee on Ways and Means, Subcommittee on Trade, Advancing the U.S. Trade Agenda:
Trade with Africa and the African Growth and Opportunity Act
, 113th Cong., 2nd sess., July 29, 2014; and U.S.
(continued...)
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Chairman Ryan of the House Committee on Ways and Means cited AGOA’s reauthorization as a
top legislative priority.55
Other stakeholders have also added their voices to the debate on AGOA. The AGOA
Ambassadors Working Group, the AGOA civil society network, and the East African Community
(EAC) have all produced recommendations for AGOA’s potential renewal. In addition, several
think tanks, non-governmental organizations, and business groups have weighed in on AGOA’s
reauthorization.56
Considerations for Potential Reforms
The following are some of the issues identified through these various studies and policy
proposals, which may merit congressional consideration during AGOA’s reauthorization debate.
Length of Reauthorization
Private sector actors have argued that uncertainty regarding the duration of AGOA preferences,
due to periodic reauthorizations, hinders investment in the region. Some have called for a longer
and uniform reauthorization (i.e., 10-15 years) for all AGOA preferences, including the third-
country fabric provision in order to reduce uncertainty and encourage greater capital investment,
which, they argue, will be necessary to generate more value-added production in the region.57
Lengthened periods of authorization, however, could also limit the incentive for more advanced
economies, such as South Africa, to engage in more comprehensive trade liberalization efforts,
such as FTA negotiations, or as part of the World Trade Organization (WTO) Doha Round
negotiations.
Country Eligibility
A range of ideas have been proposed to modify AGOA’s eligibility criteria. For example, some
argue that the existing criteria increase investor uncertainty, putting firms and workers at risk of
shutdowns due to government actions beyond their control. Others see these as an effective tool
and some support additional criteria in areas ranging from the business environment to worker
rights. Removing portions of the eligibility criteria could decrease the potential leverage AGOA
provides to encourage economic and political reform in beneficiary countries, while adding
additional criteria could limit country participation.
Stakeholders, including the Administration, have also argued for modifications in the enforcement
of eligibility criteria including the timing and scope of the withdrawal of preferences. For

(...continued)
Congress, Senate Committee on Finance, The African Growth and Opportunity Act at 14: The Road Ahead, 113th
Cong., 2nd sess., July 30, 2014.
55 House Committee on Ways and Means, "Ryan Opening Statement: Hearing on U.S. Trade Policy Agenda," press
release, January 27, 2015, http://waysandmeans.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=397950.
56 Many of these position papers were included in the USITC hearing on AGOA, and can be found at http://agoa.info/
downloads/hearings.html.
57 The Corporate Council on Africa, Promoting Shared Interests: Policy Recommendations on Africa for the Second
Term of the Obama Administration
, April 2013, p. 18.
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example, some recommend more precise targeting for failure to meet mandatory eligibility
criteria, such as removal of preferences for a particular industry rather than an entire country.
Debate over the timing of the withdrawal of preferences includes both proponents of shorter and
longer phase-outs. Some argue that immediate withdrawal of preferences following failure to
meet eligibility criteria would be more effective while others suggest a longer phase-out would
ensure businesses have time to reallocate resources. Currently, termination of benefits occurs at
the start of the year immediately following the President’s proclamation that a country has failed
to meet eligibility criteria.
Intra-African Trade
Intra-African trade and economic integration have been cited as a critical but often absent
component of economic development in the region.58 Regional integration efforts are one way to
improve intra-African trade ties, and AGOA calls for “expanding U.S. assistance to sub-Saharan
Africa’s regional integration efforts.” In the first decade of AGOA’s enactment, African intra-
regional trade stayed flat at around 10%.59 It may be worthwhile to evaluate the impact, if any,
that AGOA and corresponding U.S. development assistance have had in improving regional
integration efforts and intra-African trade, and determine whether AGOA should further address
these issues.60 Graduation of more advanced AGOA countries, discussed below, could impact
intra-African trade integration goals, as these countries are typically also the largest markets in
the region and may be important in regional supply chains.
Two-Way Trade
Like other U.S. preference programs, AGOA provides preferential access to the U.S. market with
no reciprocal preferential U.S. access to the beneficiary countries. In light of economic
improvements in the region, some observers are calling for a greater focus on two-way trade in
AGOA. One related goal included in the original AGOA legislation mandates that the
Administration seek out possible FTA partners among SSA nations. Subsequent negotiations with
South Africa and its regional partners in SACU began in 2003, but were ultimately unsuccessful
and postponed indefinitely in 2006. The European Union (EU), however, successfully concluded
an Economic Partnership Agreement (EPA) with South Africa and other countries in the region,
providing reciprocal preferential tariff treatment to EU exports, though these agreements exclude
a range of products. GSP currently includes language related to such occurrences, declaring a
country ineligible if it “affords preferential treatment to the products of a developed country, other
than the United States, which has, or is likely to have, a significant adverse effect on United
States commerce.”61
Several relevant policy questions follow: (1) is the United States willing to negotiate less
comprehensive and high-standard FTAs than it normally negotiates to gain greater access to

58 Africa’s trade with itself accounts for 11% of its total trade, compared with 50% in developing Asia and 70% in
Europe. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, Intra-African Trade: Unlocking Private Sector
Dynamism
, Economic Development in Africa Report 2013, July 2013.
59 Brookings Africa Growth Initiative, Accelerating Growth through Improved Intra-African Trade, January 2012, p. 2.
60 The Administration’s Trade Africa initiative, which centers on a new trade and investment partnership with the East
African Community (EAC). This may eventually include a bilateral investment treaty (BIT) and a trade facilitation
agreement with the EAC. http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2013/07/01/fact-sheet-trade-africa.
61 19 U.S.C. §2462(b)(2)(C).
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emerging markets like South Africa, or are countries in the region more prepared to engage in
comprehensive, reciprocal trade talks; (2) should AGOA include its own graduation process,
which, like that for GSP, removes more economically advanced countries from the preference
program once they reach a certain level of economic development (e.g., GDP/capita level); (3)
should AGOA include language requiring the removal of benefits if a beneficiary country affords
preferential treatment to a third party; (4) what is the policy on enforcement of the existing GSP
rules on this issue; and (5) how would the removal of such benefits impact other AGOA goals
such as increased intra-African trade?
Country Participation
Over half of the current AGOA beneficiaries exported less than $1 million to the United States
under AGOA in 2013. Many of these are LDC AGOA countries that are eligible for duty-free
treatment on apparel exports and enjoy the more flexible rules of origin (“Third-Country Fabric
Provision”), giving them a competitive advantage over other producers. A handful of AGOA
countries, particularly Kenya, Lesotho, and Mauritius, provide the bulk of apparel exports under
AGOA. Congress may wish to examine why these countries have been so successful in utilizing
the preference program, and if there are potential AGOA reforms that could help spur similar
success in other AGOA LDCs.
Trade Capacity Building (TCB)
AGOA country exporters face numerous challenges. These include poor infrastructure,
inadequate access to electricity, and skilled labor shortages. AGOA sets out broad aims for TCB,
which are administered through different agencies, particularly USAID. Since 2001, $5 billion
has been allocated to TCB funding in AGOA countries by various U.S. government agencies,
particularly USAID and MCC.62 Yet discussions on AGOA often center on the need for more
TCB funding, with many suggesting this amount is inadequate or ineffective. In 2011, GAO
reported that USAID needed better evaluation of its TCB programs, and in its most recent AGOA
report, GAO argued that USAID could enhance AGOA utilization with a greater focus on and
assistance toward the creation of country strategies.63 Beneficiaries may also be able to improve
their utilization of AGOA through the timely implementation of the recent WTO Trade
Facilitation Agreement. Congress may wish to consider how AGOA-directed TCB funding could
support this implementation process.
On August 4, during the U.S.-Africa Leaders Summit, President Obama announced an initiative
to develop a government-wide TCB strategy that includes among its goals improving AGOA
utilization.64 The steering group established for this task, which includes representatives from
related government agencies, is to report to the President on this strategy within 180 days of the
announcement. Depending on the timing and dissemination of this strategy, it could impact TCB
considerations in AGOA’s reauthorization.

62 GAO-15-218, AGOA: USAID Could Enhance Utilization.
63 U.S. Government Accountability Office, The United States Provides Wide-ranging Trade Capacity Building
Assistance, but Better Reporting and Evaluation Are Needed
, GA0-11-727, 2011, http://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-
11-727.
64 White House, "Presidential Memorandum -- Establishing a Comprehensive Approach to Expanding Sub-Saharan
Africa's Capacity for Trade and Investment," press release, August 4, 2014, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-
office/2014/08/04/presidential-memorandum-establishing-comprehensive-approach-expanding-su.
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Product Coverage
AGOA and GSP provide duty-free access on U.S. imports of approximately 5,200 tariff lines,
which together with the products already duty-free in the U.S. tariff schedule, grant AGOA
beneficiaries duty-free access to roughly 86% of U.S. products. While a majority of products are
covered under AGOA, some of the excluded products are competitively produced in AGOA
countries, particularly agricultural products.65 Though some agriculture products are included in
AGOA, those subject to tariff-rate quotas (TRQs) are limited in the amount that may enter duty-
free. Congress may wish to examine expanding the products or quantities covered under AGOA,
which could potentially allow a greater number of AGOA beneficiaries to make use of the trade
preference program.
To address related U.S. import sensitivities, some have suggested reassigning current quota
allocations as an alternative method to expand agricultural market access for AGOA countries.
For some products, such as chocolate, these groups argue, a portion of the quota is not assigned to
a specific country and may go unfilled. They assert that allocating this quota to AGOA countries
could be politically feasible and also encourage downstream production in some cocoa exporting
countries.66 Others contend that changing quota allocations could require approval from the
WTO, limiting its feasibility.67 In addition to challenges posed by tariffs and quotas, agriculture
producers in AGOA countries may also face difficulty exporting due to failure to meet U.S. food
safety standards, suggesting that such exporters may also benefit from targeted TCB funding to
help them better meet these standards.
Rules of Origin
In comparison with other preference programs, AGOA has relatively liberal rules of origin. For
example, the third-country fabric rule allows for a certain quantity of AGOA apparel exports to be
produced from yarns and fabrics of any origin. AGOA, unlike GSP, also allows for regional
cumulation, whereby multiple AGOA beneficiaries can contribute toward a product’s required
35% regional value content, and the United States can contribute 15% of the 35%.68 Despite this
existing flexibility, restrictions remain, which some groups would like to ease. These stakeholders
seek, for example, an increase in the allowable value content attributed to the United States or
easing technical constraints on what costs count toward cumulation. In addition, certain AGOA
countries have argued that existing rules of origin prevent canned tuna from qualifying for AGOA
preferences, and have sought a general modification of the rules or a product-specific exception.
They argue it is difficult to achieve the 35% threshold as most of the value in canned tuna is the
fish itself, which is attributed to the country of the fishing vessel. Press reports suggest the U.S.
tuna canning industry opposes such a change.69

65 GAO, Options for Congressional Consideration to Improve U.S. Trade Preference Programs, Prepared Statement
for Hearing, GAO-10-262T, November 2009, p. 4.
66 Kimberly Ann Elliott, AGOA's Final Frontier: Removing US Farm Trade Barriers, Center for Global Development,
July 28, 2014, http://www.cgdev.org/publication/ft/agoa-final-frontier-removing-us-farm-trade-barriers.
67 "U.S. Faces Key Questions as It Mulls Adding Ag Products to AGOA," Inside U.S. Trade, September 4, 2014.
68 GSP does allow for cumulation among specified associations of countries, such as the West African Economic and
Monetary Union (WAEMU).
69 "Mauritius, Other Press for Liberalizing Tuna Rule of Origin Under AGOA," Inside U.S. Trade, September 4, 2014.
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Trade Disputes—Poultry and South Africa
Some Members of Congress who support AGOA have expressed concern over South Africa’s
continued imposition of antidumping duties on U.S. poultry exports.70 These Members have made
their support of AGOA conditional on resolution of this dispute, arguing that they “will need to
consider strengthening AGOA to prevent South Africa from benefitting from duty preferences
while continuing to discriminate against U.S. goods, specifically poultry.” AGOA’s current
eligibility criteria require that beneficiary countries have established or are making progress
toward establishing the elimination of barriers to U.S. trade and investment, including bilateral
trade and investment disputes.71 According to press reports, U.S. and South African officials have
in recent meetings been working toward a resolution of the issue.72
Duty-Free Quota-Free (DFQF) Beyond Africa
AGOA’s tariff benefits, which include apparel products, are broader than those provided by GSP.
Some argue, including in the context of the current WTO Doha negotiations, that broader duty-
free quota-free tariff preferences should be granted to all least-developed countries, not just those
in Africa.73 LDCs throughout the world face relatively high U.S. import tariffs given the
particular items they export, such as apparel and agricultural products. For example, in 2014, U.S.
import duties on all imports from Cambodia ($460 million) were higher than on those from
France ($451 million).74 Providing broader DFQF access to LDCs would erode some of the
competitive advantage AGOA apparel producers currently receive. A recent study estimates that
apparel exports from AGOA countries would fall considerably if AGOA-like benefits were
expanded to all LDCs.75 Other studies, however, estimate that a broader DFQF program could
actually benefit AGOA LDCs by including protected sectors such as agriculture, despite potential
losses in apparel production.76 In addition, proponents of DFQF argue that apparel products
currently produced in AGOA countries could be targeted for exemption from a broader DFQF
program.77

70 Letter from Senator Johnny Isakson and Senator Christopher A. Coons to The Honorable Michael Froman, United
States Trade Representative, January 27, 2015, http://www.isakson.senate.gov/public/_cache/files/26c427ec-10ce-
49b2-8fb9-f73674069753/U.S.%20Trade%20Representative%20Michael%20Froman%20Letter.pdf.
71 19 U.S.C. §3703(a)(1).
72 "U.S., South African Officials Tackle AGOA, Poultry, SPS in DC Meetings," Inside U.S. Trade, March 5, 2015.
73 Kimberly Ann Elliott, Why Is Opening the U.S. Market to Poor Countries So Hard?, Center for Global
Development, January 2012.
74 Calculated duties according to U.S. ITC tariff and trade dataweb.
75 Brookings and United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, The African Growth and Opportunity Act: An
Empirical Analysis of the Possibilities Post-2015
, July 2013, p. 17.
76 Antoine Bouet et al., The Costs and Benefits of Duty-Free, Quota-Free Market Access for Poor Countries: Who and
What Matters
, Center for Global Development, Working Paper 206, March 2010.
77 Letter from Kimberly Elliott, Center for Global Development, to Michael Froman, USTR, June 24, 2013,
http://www.cgdev.org/publication/supporting-multilateralism-and-development-us-trade-policy-duty-free-quota-free-
market.
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Proposed Renewal Legislation
Bills to renew the AGOA preference program (H.R. 1891/S. 1009) were introduced in the House
and Senate on April 17 and April 20.78 Key issues addressed in the bills include: (1) a ten year
renewal of the overall program including the regional apparel article program and the third-
country fabric provision; (2) modifications to the rules of origin allowing for the “direct costs of
processing operations” to count toward a product’s required regional value content to qualify for
duty-free treatment; (3) changes to the eligibility review process administered by the President,
including a required 60-day notification to Congress before termination of preferential treatment
for beneficiary countries, a requirement to seek public comments and hold a public hearing on
eligibility reviews as well as establish a public petition process open at all times, authorization of
an out-of-cycle review process and a sense of Congress that the President should initiate such a
review of South Africa within 30 days of enactment, and the ability to withdrawal, suspend, or
limit preferential treatment rather than full termination; (4) sense of Congress that beneficiary
countries should develop utilization strategies together with U.S. trade capacity building
agencies; (5) policy statement to expand trade and investment by negotiating trade and
investment framework agreements (TIFAs), bilateral investment treaties (BITs), FTAs with
beneficiary countries and through accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO) agreements
for beneficiary countries; (6) a biennial report on U.S. trade and investment relations with the
region, eligibility status, regional integration efforts, and trade capacity building efforts; and (7) a
report one year after enactment and five years thereafter that discusses the status of negotiating
FTA’s with sub-Saharan African countries.

78 For additional information on the bills, see
http://waysandmeans.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=398333, and
http://www.finance.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/FINAL%20Chairmans%20Mark%20-%20Preferences.pdf.
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Appendix. Sub-Saharan African Countries
Table A-1. AGOA and GSP Eligibility, U.S. Imports, and GSP/Capita, by Country
AGOA
Third-
U.S. Non-Energy
GSP-
Country
Imports under
Least
Fabric
AGOA/GSP*
GDP/Capita
Country GSP
Developed AGOA
Provision (thousand $s, 2014)
($s, 2013)
Angola




6 5,783
Benin




65
805
Botswana




9,460
7,315
Burkina Faso




41
684
Burundi




4
267
Cameroon




12,990
3,767
Cape Verde




338
1,329
Central African
Republic




NA
333
Chad




0
1,054
Comoros




0
815
Democratic
484
Republic of Congo




NA
Republic of Congo




933
3,167
Cote d’Ivoire




70,460
1,529
Djibouti




562
1,668
Equatorial Guinea




NA
20,582
Eritrea




NA
544
Ethiopia




40,989
505
Gabon




29
11,571
The Gambia




52**
489
Ghana




19,135
1,858
Guinea




53
523
Guinea-Bissau




NA*
564
Kenya




423,272
1,246
Lesotho




288,971
1,126
Liberia




16
454
Madagascar




3,421
463
Malawi




60,031
226
Mali




158
715
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Mauritania




3
1,069
Mauritius




226,698
9,203
Mozambique




8,704
605
Namibia




407
5,693
Niger




40
415
Nigeria




4,080
3,006
Rwanda




631
639
Sao Tome and
1,610
Principe




76
Senegal




253
1,047
Seychelles




0
16,186
Sierra Leone




656
679
Somalia




NA
NA
South Africa




3,103,848
6,618
South Sudan




0**
1,045
Sudan




NA
1,753
Swaziland




77,175**
3,034
Tanzania




18,280
695
Togo




178
636
Uganda




1,506
572
Zambia




4,991
1,845
Zimbabwe




NA
953
Source: Analysis by CRS. Eligibility based on notes to the U.S. Harmonized Tariff Schedule published by the ITC
and presidential proclamations regarding AGOA eligibility. Trade data from the ITC and GDP data from the
World Bank’s World Development Indicators.
Notes: Import data based on imports for consumption. Import data is only listed for AGOA-eligible countries
(even if they remain eligible for GSP).
(*) Guinea-Bissau was ineligible for the AGOA preferences in 2014, but its eligibility has since been reinstated.
(**)South Sudan, Swaziland, and The Gambia’s eligibility was revoked, effective January 1, 2015.

Author Contact Information

Brock R. Williams

Analyst in International Trade and Finance
bwilliams@crs.loc.gov, 7-1157

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Acknowledgments
Amber Wilhelm and Hannah Fisher provided assistance with the graphics for this report.
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